Sustainable minerals operations in the developing world: introduction

Sustainable development requires an appropriate abalance between social, economic and environme ntal well-being, now and for the future. Since most minerals are non-renewalble resources, sustainability of supply can only be addressed by extracting, processing and distributing raw in the least environmentally damaging ways, using minerals wisely, and recycling as much as possible. However, there also is significant scope for inproved sustainability in terms of economic and social aspects. Minerals are essential raw materials but high-quality deposits havem become depleted in many developed countries. These countries have increasingly turned to developing countries for supplies and it is in these that modt high-quality untapped futre prospect remain. for countries with limited export opportunities, minerals are often a mainstay of the domestic economy. However, low selling prices may reflect limited environmental regulation and low wages. This can lead to charges that the rich countries are exporting their environmental damage to, andexploiting, poorer countries. As more countries develop, the global demand for supplies of essential raw materials increases, and resources will be depleted more quickly. Therefore, sustainable minerals supply from the developing countries is an important global issue. In this Special Report, general aspects of sustainable minerals operations in the developing world are reviewed by Petterson et al., Hobbs, and Richards while the remaining papers consider specific issues in more detail. Hobbs, in particular, emphasizes the need to give proper weight each to human capital, financial capital, manufactured capital, and environmental capital in any full analysis as a context for sustainable development and effective

The need and context for sustainable mineral development

A special thematic conference was organized at the Geological Society of London in November 2003, aimed at bringing together experts in minerals development in the Developing Countries. Representatives of many aspects of mineral development attended, including mining companies, governments, aid agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), academics and consultants. The opening address to the conference is given in this paper. Mining is an ancient human activity developed through essential societal demand. As society and technology have developed, they have inevitably become ever-more materials hungry. This demand will remain for the foreseeable future. Many areas of the Developed World have depleted high-grade mineral deposits, and remaining resources are subject to strong environmental constraints. This increases pressure on the Developing World to generate the mineral commodities upon which society depends. Mineral resources are also a potential source of capital over which Developing Countries can have their own decision-making powers (in contrast to aid money for example). Sustainable mineral development is all about balance. Achieving the dynamic balance between supply and demand, equitable capital distribution, good financial and environmental management and governance, economics, and social stability is the challenge the world faces in the twenty-first century and beyond

Introduction to the Stone Cycle and the Conservation of Historic Buildings

This Thematic Set of papers relating to the life cycle of building stone was initiated by a call for papers in order to better recognize the contribution that the disciplines, and practitioners, of engineering geology and hydrogeology make to the conservation of historical buildings, which is intrinsically multidisciplinary. The call for papers particularly focused upon the issues of different stone types used in historical buildings, as well as the performance, durability and conservation of stone in historical settings. The response was overwhelming, with many more abstracts submitted than could possibly be published in the Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology (QJEGH). Accordingly, the papers were divided into two sets, with one set destined to appear in QJEGH as described herein and the second set to appear in a Geological Society Special Publication (Cassar et al. 2014). The presence of a particular paper in one set or the other is not a reflection on quality, but merely a reflection of the need to divide the papers into two sets each of which reflects subtly differing themes. History has been written in stone, from prehistoric monuments to modern-day buildings, and all types of stone, limestones and sandstones, granites and marbles, have been utilized to build, to clad, and to decorate. The buildings that are symbols of a city, a region, or a country are mostly built of stone. We immediately think of England when we see an image of Stonehenge; the Acropolis symbolizes Athens; the Coliseum Rome; Machu Picchu Peru; and the Taj Mahal India

Replacement stones for Lede stone in Belgian historical monuments

The Lede stone (Lutetian, Eocene) is an important historic building stone used in the NW of Belgium. In Ghent, it is dominant in the post-Romanesque built cultural heritage. Its use was restricted several times by socio-economic constraints. Since quarrying and production started to cease from the seventeenth century, periodic revivals favoured the use of Lede stone for new buildings and restoration projects. Sulphation is the main threat for the Lede stone as black crusts are the most common degradation phenomena on this arenaceous limestone. Around the turn of the nineteenth century, the Belgian Gobertange stone was the most widely used replacement material. Throughout the twentieth century, the use of replacement material shifted towards French limestones. However, their colour, texture and petrophysical properties differ from the Lede stone, for which a natural yellow-brown patina is very characteristic. In order to solve this mainly aesthetic issue, several new stone types are used as replacement stone in the twenty-first century, while many others have been suggested. It remains, however, difficult to find a replacement stone that matches the visual and petrophysical properties of the Lede stone. One remaining Lede stone quarry pit has increased its activity since 2011, offering the opportunity to use new Lede stone as replacement stone

Replacement stones for Lede stone in Belgian historical monuments

The Lede stone (Lutetian, Eocene) is an important historic building stone used in the NW of Belgium. In Ghent, it is dominant in the post-Romanesque built cultural heritage. Its use was restricted several times by socio-economic constraints. Since quarrying and production started to cease from the seventeenth century, periodic revivals favoured the use of Lede stone for new buildings and restoration projects. Sulphation is the main threat for the Lede stone as black crusts are the most common degradation phenomena on this arenaceous limestone. Around the turn of the nineteenth century, the Belgian Gobertange stone was the most widely used replacement material. Throughout the twentieth century, the use of replacement material shifted towards French limestones. However, their colour, texture and petrophysical properties differ from the Lede stone, for which a natural yellow-brown patina is very characteristic. In order to solve this mainly aesthetic issue, several new stone types are used as replacement stone in the twenty-first century, while many others have been suggested. It remains, however, difficult to find a replacement stone that matches the visual and petrophysical properties of the Lede stone. One remaining Lede stone quarry pit has increased its activity since 2011, offering the opportunity to use new Lede stone as replacement stone