Effects of fly infection state (<i>Spiroplasma</i>-infected vs. <i>Spiroplasma</i>-free), fly strain (isoline) and their interaction, for each of the survival measures.

<p>Based on Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GzLMM) with binomial error distribution. <i>F</i>  =  F-ratio for fixed effects and corresponding degrees of freedom (subscripts in parenthesis). <i>χ</i>² for pseudo-likelihood ratio test “covtest” for random effects (<i>d.f.</i> = 1). <i>P</i>-values are shown in parenthesis (boldface: significant at α = 0.01). In  =  <i>Spiroplasma</i>-infected; Un  =  <i>Spiroplasma</i>-free.</p

Significant interactions between infection state and fly strain in the absence (A and B) and presence (C) of wasps.

<p>Untransformed mean survival of <i>Spiroplasma</i>-infected and <i>Spiroplasma</i>-free flies. Each fly strain is represented by a different line color. <b>A.</b> Larva-to-adult fly survival (no. of emerging adult flies/number of initial fly larvae). <b>B.</b> Pupa-to-adult fly survival (no. of pupal cases/number of initial fly larvae). <b>C.</b> Fly adult emergence rate or proportion of total adults that resulted in adult flies (no. of emerging adult flies/total no. of emerging adults [flies + wasps]). (<i>P-</i>value: pseudo-likelihood ratio test “covtest” for fly strain in <i>Spiroplasma</i>-free flies only).</p

Wasp oviposition frequency in <i>Spiroplasma</i>-free and <i>Spiroplasma</i>-infected <i>Drosophila hydei</i> larvae.

<p>Proportion of fly larvae that had at least one wasp egg. Numbers above columns  =  exact proportion. Numbers in columns  =  number of fly larvae examined.</p

Fly survival in the presence/absence of <i>Spiroplasma</i> infection and in the presence/absence of wasp attack.

<p>Untransformed mean (±SE) survival of <i>Spiroplasma</i>-infected and <i>Spiroplasma</i>-free flies in the presence and absence of wasps. <b>A.</b> Pupa-to-adult fly survival (no. of emerging adult flies/number of pupal cases). <b>B.</b> Larva-to-pupa fly survival (no. of pupal cases/number of initial fly larvae). <i>P</i>-values are indicated for comparisons that were significantly different (ns =  not significant). Numbers within or above bars indicate number of replicates (vials) per treatment.</p

Contrasting Phylogeography of Sandy vs. Rocky Supralittoral Isopods in the Megadiverse and Geologically Dynamic Gulf of California and Adjacent Areas

<div><p>Phylogeographic studies of animals with low vagility and restricted to patchy habitats of the supralittoral zone, can uncover unknown diversity and shed light on processes that shaped evolution along a continent’s edge. The Pacific coast between southern California and central Mexico, including the megadiverse Gulf of California, offers a remarkable setting to study biological diversification in the supralittoral. A complex geological history coupled with cyclical fluctuations in temperature and sea level provided ample opportunities for diversification of supralittoral organisms. Indeed, a previous phylogeographic study of <i>Ligia</i>, a supralittoral isopod that has limited dispersal abilities and is restricted to rocky patches, revealed high levels of morphologically cryptic diversity. Herein, we examined phylogeographic patterns of <i>Tylos</i>, another supralittoral isopod with limited dispersal potential, but whose habitat (i.e., sandy shores) appears to be more extensive and connected than that of <i>Ligia</i>. We conducted Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. These analyses revealed multiple highly divergent lineages with discrete regional distributions, despite the recognition of a single valid species for this region. A traditional species-diagnostic morphological trait distinguished several of these lineages. The phylogeographic patterns of <i>Tylos</i> inside the Gulf of California show a deep and complex history. In contrast, patterns along the Pacific region between southern California and the Baja Peninsula indicate a recent range expansion, probably postglacial and related to changes in sea surface temperature (SST). In general, the phylogeographic patterns of <i>Tylos</i> differed from those of <i>Ligia</i>. Differences in the extension and connectivity of the habitats occupied by <i>Tylos</i> and <i>Ligia</i> may account for the different degrees of population isolation experienced by these two isopods and their contrasting phylogeographic patterns. Identification of divergent lineages of <i>Tylos</i> in the study area is important for conservation, as some populations are threatened by human activities.</p></div

Sampled localities in the study area.

<p>Colors and shapes correspond to clades in Fig. 2. * denotes location of Guerrero Negro Lagoon in the central Baja California Peninsula.</p

Inferred phylogeny of <i>Tylos</i> in the study area, based on the concatenated mitochondrial+nuclear loci.

<p>Majority-rule consensus tree (RaxML bootstrap). Colors and shapes correspond to clades in Fig. 1. Numbers by nodes indicate the corresponding range of Bootstrap Support (BS; top or left) for Maximum likelihood (RaxML, Garli, PartitionFinder); and Posterior Probabilities (PP; bottom or right) for Bayesian inference methods (MrBayes, Phycas, BayesPhylogenies), including all partitioning schemes. * denotes nodes that received 100% support for all methods. Nodes receiving less than 50% support for all methods were collapsed and denoted with <50. †: relationship based on 16S sequence only: Isla Angel de la Guarda.</p

WaspGrowth

WaspGrowt

SexRatio

SexRati

Fly Survival

Fly and Wasp survival from the experiment setting