Insights from applying different assessment methods for metals resource use

Society’s increasing metal demand raises a number of concerns. In the shorter term, there may be risks to for constraints on expanding extraction to meet a rapidly increasing demand, causing supply disruptions and price volatility which especially affects import-dependent regions. The ongoing transition to renewable electricity production based on wind and sun and to electrified vehicles may even be delayed because of lack of required metals. In the longer term, continued extraction depends on decreasingly concentrated ores and may risk to eventually cause depletion. Metal use is also associated with significant environmental impacts, through life cycle energy use and locally from mining. The social impacts of so-called conflict minerals are undisputable. Companies and public policy makers wishing to act on these concerns are faced with a multitude of issues and potential solutions, such as circular economy, may involve trade-offs between different issues and consequently require decisions on what issues to prioritize. Ex-ante assessments can offer such decision-makers the opportunity to study potential implications of different actions before-hand. However, it may be challenging to discern the purpose of the multitude of methods that exist and what aspects of metal resources they in fact address. Furthermore, can methods be used in a complementary way or are they overlapping? Are they appropriate for any context? This contribution aims to present insights gained from having applied a selection of different assessments methods to study how circular economy solutions affect metal use. The methods are life cycle assessment, criticality assessment, dynamic material flow analysis and circularity indicators. All are applied for studying various aspects of circular economy solutions for electric traction motors in passenger cars – an essential part of the drivetrain of all types of electric vehicles and one that requires several metals such as iron, copper, aluminium and rare earth elements. The methods have been applied in separate studies performed over several years (Huisman et al. 2017, André and Ljunggren 2020, Løvik et al 2021, Jerome et al. 2022) and have pointed to different potential actions to take for decision makers. In this contribution, the studies will be presented and compared to illustrate typical questions addressed regarding metal resource use and differences and similarities between methods. This may support a discussion on what methods to apply in what contexts as well as what methods to apply in a complementary manner, what methods to further integrate and what methods to develop. The goal is to support a purposive and more comprehensive and assessment of actions to reduce concerns about society’s metal resource use. References: André, H. and Ljunggren, M. (2020) Supply disruption and depletion impacts in a company context: the case of a permanent magnet electric traction motor, in André, H. (2020) Assessing Mineral Resource Scarcity in a Circular Economy Context. Chalmers Tekniska Hogskola (Sweden). Jerome, A., Helander, H., Ljunggren, M., & Janssen, M. (2022). Mapping and testing circular economy productlevel indicators: A critical review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 178, 106080. Løvik, A., Marmy, C., Ljunggren, M., Kushnir, D., Huisman, J., Bobba, S., Maury, T., Ciuta, T., Garbossa, E., Mathieux, F. and Wäger, P., Material composition trends in vehicles: critical raw materials and other relevant metals., EUR 30916 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2021, ISBN 978-92-76- 45213-3 (online), doi:10.2760/351825 (online), JRC126564. Huisman, J., Leroy, P., Tertre, F., Ljunggren Söderman, M., Chancerel, P., Cassard, D., Løvik, A. N., Wäger, P., Kushnir, D., Rotter, V.S., Mählitz, P., Herreras, L., Emmerich, J., Hallberg, A., Habib, H., Wagner, M., Downes, S. (2017), Prospecting Secondary Raw Materials in the Urban Mine and mining wastes (ProSUM) - Final Report, ISBN: 978-92-808-9060-0 (print), 978-92-808-9061-7 (electronic), December 21, 2017, Brussels, Belgium

Complementing LCA with qualitative organisational study for improving waste management governance – illustrated by a comparative case on metal packaging

We here present a novel method that combines the life cycle approach with qualitative organisational study for environmentally effective waste management. While LCA is useful for producing a systems overview of the environmental performance, it does not provide further guidance on systems management since the actors and activities that uphold them are not systematically studied. The human dimension is particularly manifest in waste management where many types of actors (private, public, consumers, legislators, sector organisations) interact in complex ways. Our method, with which we study Product Chain Organisation (PCO), is designed to complement LCA. Descriptions and accounts of actors interacting and communicating in the product chain provide a basis for understanding how actions influence overall environmental performance. The method is thoroughly grounded in a socio-material approach well established in the social sciences and the humanities. The socio-material approach considers human organisation to be intimately entangled with material flows, machines, buildings, the environment, etc, and that they all influence each other. Please click Additional Files below to see the full abstract

Analysing future solid waste generation - Soft linking a model of waste management with a CGE-model for Sweden

Parallel to the efforts of the EU to achieve a significant and overall reduction of waste quantities within the EU, the Swedish parliament enacted an environmental quality objective stating that ‘the total quantity of waste must not increase …’ i.e. an eventual absolute decoupling of waste generation from GDP. The decoupling issue is ad-dressed, in the present paper, by assessing future waste quantities, for a number of economic scenarios of the Swedish economy to 2030 with alternative assumptions about key factors affecting waste generation and waste management costs. We use an integrated top-down/bottom-up approach by linking a CGE-model of the Swedish economy with a systems engineering model of the Swedish waste management system. In this way, we can in more detail consider the interaction between waste generation and waste management costs (waste disposal prices) when assessing future waste quantities. A relative decoupling of waste generation takes place in all scenarios, i.e. total waste quantities increase at a lower rate than GDP. Absolute decoupling, which re-quire total waste quantities to stabilize or to reduce, does not take place in any of the scenarios. This means that the present Swedish Environmental quality objective of stabilizing waste quantities is not met in any of the scenarios with total waste genera-tion levels of 110 per cent up to nearly 200 per cent of that in 2006. The overall impression from our analysis is that costs are high for reducing waste generation irrespective of the type of waste reduced. In other words, the waste treat-ment costs are low compared to the costs for reducing waste. This situation also means that the use of policy instruments, which induce substitution by increasing the price of waste disposal services, will have very small reducing effects on the generation of all types of waste unless the price increase brings about an introduction of waste preventing techniques and affect households in the direction of a less waste intensive behaviour. For example, the policy instruments used must affect the pattern of household consumption pattern more directly, as a differentiation of the value added tax, rather than to be directed towards the waste management sector. Economic policy instruments introduced in the waste management sector are more likely to affect the choice of waste management solutions than prevent waste generation. Linking a macroeconomic and a systems engineering model for waste manage-ment, gives us a tool useful also for capturing the macroeconomic effects, such as GDP growth and structural changes, when designing policy instruments intended to prevent waste generation or take waste management in a more sustainable direction.general equilibrium model; systems engineering; solid waste; waste management; waste generation; decoupling; EMEC; NatWaste; top-down/bottom-up; waste policy instruments

Mapping the content and fates of scarce metals in discarded cars

A great variety of current products make use of components or materials (e.g. electronics, steel and aluminium alloys) that utilise increasing amounts of ‘critical’ or scarce metals (SM). For example, design trends for cars point at increasing SM utilisation in order for regulatory, business and consumer requirements on environmental performance, safety, costs, comfort and infotainment to be met. Modern cars now hold SM in substantial amounts, i.e. the circa one billion cars in use worldwide today, constitute a significant near-term secondary SM resource. However, current end-of-life vehicle (ELV) recycling is mainly aimed at isolating hazardous contents, dismantling spare parts and recycling bulk metals. There is thus a clear risk that ELV SM are not functionally recycled and thus lost for further use. Assessments of the opportunities for increased functional recycling require estimates of SM content of discarded cars and individual waste flows in ELV recycling. However, information on both is limited. Data related to cars is sparse, and challenged by the large range and age span of discarded car brands and models. Measurements of SM in waste flows are few and cover a limited range of SM. Consequently, available data does not allow us to quantify with precision the SM contents of discarded cars reaching the ELV recycling system, or map individual metal flows within it. Instead, our approach relies on mapping 25 ELV SM to main types of applications within three newly produced car models using automotive industry data (International Material Data System, IMDS), and letting these models represent the ELV fleet so that the annual input magnitudes of SM to ELV management can be estimated. Subsequently, we employ material flow analysis of ELV waste streams as basis for identifying potential pathways of these main applications, and the extent to which contained metals may reach processes capable of functional recycling. The approach allows us to qualitatively distinguish subsets of systems flows holding groups of SM, and discuss the potential for functional recycling. Using Swedish ELV management as a case, we conclude that only platinum may be functionally recycled in its main application. Cobalt, gold, manganese, molybdenum, palladium, rhodium and silver may be functionally recycled depending on application and pathways taken. For remaining 17 metals, functional recycling is lacking. Consequently, there is considerable risk of losing SM with current ELV procedures. Given differences in the application of metals and identified pathways, strategies for improving recycling and resource security are considered. Moreover, our case illustrates the considerable challenge, posed by the complexity and range of car configurations and the sparsity of information on SM, to closer assess recycling strategies and advance secondary SM resource utilisation

Environmental impacts of hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicles—what can we learn from life cycle assessment?

PurposeThe purpose of this review article is to investigate the usefulness of different types of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of electrified vehicles to provide robust and relevant stakeholder information. It presents synthesized conclusions based on 79 papers. Another objective is to search for explanations to divergence and “complexity” of results found by other overviewing papers in the research field, and to compile methodological learnings. The hypothesis was that such divergence could be explained by differences in goal and scope definitions of the reviewed LCA studies.MethodsThe review has set special attention to the goal and scope formulation of all included studies. First, completeness and clarity have been assessed in view of the ISO standard’s (ISO 2006a, b) recommendation for goal definition. Secondly, studies have been categorized based on technical and methodological scope, and searched for coherent conclusions.Results and discussionComprehensive goal formulation according to the ISO standard (ISO 2006a, b) is absent in most reviewed studies. Few give any account of the time scope, indicating the temporal validity of results and conclusions. Furthermore, most studies focus on today’s electric vehicle technology, which is under strong development. Consequently, there is a lack of future time perspective, e.g., to advances in material processing, manufacturing of parts, and changes in electricity production. Nevertheless, robust assessment conclusions may still be identified. Most obvious is that electricity production is the main cause of environmental impact for externally chargeable vehicles. If, and only if, the charging electricity has very low emissions of fossil carbon, electric vehicles can reach their full potential in mitigating global warming. Consequently, it is surprising that almost no studies make this stipulation a main conclusion and try to convey it as a clear message to relevant stakeholders. Also, obtaining resources can be observed as a key area for future research. In mining, leakage of toxic substances from mine tailings has been highlighted. Efficient recycling, which is often assumed in LCA studies of electrified vehicles, may reduce demand for virgin resources and production energy. However, its realization remains a future challenge.ConclusionsLCA studies with clearly stated purposes and time scope are key to stakeholder lessons and guidance. It is also necessary for quality assurance. LCA practitioners studying hybrid and electric vehicles are strongly recommended to provide comprehensive and clear goal and scope formulation in line with the ISO standard (ISO 2006a, b)

Integrated economic and environmental assessment of waste policy instruments

The need for new policy instruments supporting the on-going transition from end-of-pipe waste treatment to resource management has been recognized in European policy. Instruments need to be carefully assessed before implementation to promote the desired changes and avoid problem shifting. Mathematical models may assist policy makers in such assessments. This paper presents a set of soft-linked models for assessing the economic and environmental impacts of policy instruments for both the prevention and management of waste and discusses its strengths and limitations. Consisting of (1) a macro-economic model, (2) a systems engineering model for waste management and (3) a life cycle assessment model for waste management, the set is primarily suited to assessing market-based instruments and environmental regulations. Considerable resources were needed for developing and using the set, and there are clear limits as to what can be addressed. However, if only one of the models had been used, neither the range of instruments nor the scope of impacts would have been possible to cover. Furthermore, soft-linked models allow many disciplines to contribute within one harmonized framework. Such integrated assessments may become increasingly useful for continuing the implementation of policy for sustainable governance of society’s material resources

Integrated Economic and Environmental Assessment of Waste Policy Instruments

The need for new policy instruments supporting the on-going transition from end-of-pipe waste treatment to resource management has been recognized in European policy. Instruments need to be carefully assessed before implementation to promote the desired changes and avoid problem shifting. Mathematical models may assist policy makers in such assessments. This paper presents a set of soft-linked models for assessing the economic and environmental impacts of policy instruments for both the prevention and management of waste and discusses its strengths and limitations. Consisting of (1) a macro-economic model, (2) a systems engineering model for waste management and (3) a life cycle assessment model for waste management, the set is primarily suited to assessing market-based instruments and environmental regulations. Considerable resources were needed for developing and using the set, and there are clear limits as to what can be addressed. However, if only one of the models had been used, neither the range of instruments nor the scope of impacts would have been possible to cover. Furthermore, soft-linked models allow many disciplines to contribute within one harmonized framework. Such integrated assessments may become increasingly useful for continuing the implementation of policy for sustainable governance of society’s material resources

Ekonomisk analys av nya styrmedel för hanteringen av svenskt avfall

Denna rapport är en del av avrapporteringen från delprojektet ”Ekonomisk modellering och utvärdering av styrmedel” inom Hållbar avfallshantering. Delprojektet har som syfte att utveckla och tillämpa en metod för att analysera hur styrmedel inom avfallsområdet påverkar hanteringen av avfall och ger effekter på samhällsekonomin. Metoden går ut på att modellerna EMEC (en allmän jämviktsmodell för Sveriges ekonomi)och NatWaste (en systemteknisk modell för Sveriges avfallshantering) länkas för att undersöka hur avfallshantering och övriga ekonomiska sektorer påverkar varandra. Metoden gör det möjligt att analysera såväl makroekonomiska effekter som effekter på avfallshanteringen av styrmedel för avfallsområdet. I rapporten presenteras den del av utvärderingen som rör styrmedel som införs för att påverka hanteringen av det svenska avfallet, närmare bestämt den del i vilken NatWaste använts. Den del av analysen som rör styrmedel som införs för att minska uppkomsten av avfall genom ändrad produktion och konsumtion redovisas i Forsfält (2011). Arbetet i delprojektet har varit nära länkat till delprojektet ”Miljöutvärdering av styrmedel” där syftet är att bedöma hur styrmedel för avfall påverkar miljön. Många personer har därför bidragit till det material som presenteras i rapporten. Göran Östblom och Tomas Forsfält, Konjunkturinstitutet, Anna Björklund, Yevgenyia Arushanyan och Göran Finnveden, KTH, Jan-Olov Sundqvist, Åsa Stenmarck, Tomas Ekvall, Annika Gottberg och Anna Widheden, IVL Svenska miljöinstitutet, Ola Eriksson, Högskolan i Gävle och Niclas Mattsson, Chalmers tekniska högskola har alla deltagit i de två delprojekten. Övriga forskare i Hållbar Avfallshantering samt programmets referensgrupp har också bidragit på olika sätt till arbetet. This report is only available in Swedish. English summary is available in the report.Hållbar Avfallshantering är ett tvärvetenskapligt svenskt forskningsprogram, som under åren 2006-2012 forskade om vilka styrmedel och strategiska beslut som kan bidra till att utveckla svensk avfallshantering i en mer hållbar riktning. Denna rapport är en del av avrapporteringen från delprojektet ”Ekonomisk modellering och utvärdering av styrmedel” inom Hållbar avfallshantering