Community perceptions and practices of treatment seeking for childhood pneumonia: a mixed methods study in a rural district, Ghana

Abstract Background The World Health Organization recommends community case management of malaria and pneumonia for reduction of under-five mortality in developing countries. Caregivers’ perception and understanding of the illness influences the care a sick child receives. Studies in Ghana and elsewhere have routinely shown adequate recognition of malaria by caregivers. Similarly, evidence from Asia and some African countries have shown adequate knowledge on pneumonia. However, in Ghana, little has been documented about community awareness, knowledge, perceptions and management of childhood pneumonia particularly in the Dangme West district. Therefore this formative study was conducted to determine community perceptions of pneumonia for the purpose of informing the design and implementation of context specific health communication strategies to promote early and appropriate care seeking behaviour for childhood pneumonia. Methods A mixed method approach was adopted. Data were obtained from structured interviews (N = 501) and eight focus group discussions made up of 56 caregivers of under-fives and eight community Key Informants. Descriptive and inference statistics were used for the quantitative data and grounded theory to guide the analysis of the qualitative data. Results Two-thirds of the respondents had never heard the name pneumonia. Most respondents did not know about the signs and symptoms of pneumonia. For the few who have heard about pneumonia, causes were largely attributed to coming into contact with cold temperature in various forms. Management practices mostly were self-treatment with home remedies and allopathic care. Conclusion The low awareness and inadequate recognition of pneumonia implies that affected children may not receive prompt and appropriate treatment as their caregivers may misdiagnose the illness. Adequate measures need to be taken to create the needed awareness to improve care seeking behaviour

Treatment choices for fevers in children under-five years in a rural Ghanaian district

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Health care demand studies help to examine the behaviour of individuals and households during illnesses. Few of existing health care demand studies examine the choice of treatment services for childhood illnesses. Besides, in their analyses, many of the existing studies compare alternative treatment options to a single option, usually self-medication. This study aims at examining the factors that influence the choices that caregivers of children under-five years make regarding treatment of fevers due to malaria and pneumonia in a rural setting. The study also examines how the choice of alternative treatment options compare with each other.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The study uses data from a 2006 household socio-economic survey and health and demographic surveillance covering caregivers of 529 children under-five years of age in the Dangme West District and applies a multinomial probit technique to model the choice of treatment services for fevers in under-fives in rural Ghana. Four health care options are considered: self-medication, over-the-counter providers, public providers and private providers.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The findings indicate that longer travel, waiting and treatment times encourage people to use self-medication and over-the-counter providers compared to public and private providers. Caregivers with health insurance coverage also use care from public providers compared to over-the-counter or private providers. Caregivers with higher incomes use public and private providers over self-medication while higher treatment charges and longer times at public facilities encourage caregivers to resort to private providers. Besides, caregivers of female under-fives use self-care while caregivers of male under-fives use public providers instead of self-care, implying gender disparity in the choice of treatment.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The results of this study imply that efforts at curbing under-five mortality due to malaria and pneumonia need to take into account care-seeking behaviour of caregivers of under-fives as well as implementation of strategies.</p

IL10 Haplotype Associated with Tuberculin Skin Test Response but Not with Pulmonary TB

Evidence from genetic association and twin studies indicates that susceptibility to tuberculosis (TB) is under genetic control. One gene implicated in susceptibility to TB is that encoding interleukin-10 (IL10). In a group of 2010 Ghanaian patients with pulmonary TB and 2346 healthy controls exposed to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, among them 129 individuals lacking a tuberculin skin test (PPD) response, we genotyped four IL10 promoter variants at positions −2849 , −1082 , −819 , and −592 and reconstructed the haplotypes. The IL10 low-producer haplotype −2849A/−1082A/−819C/−592C, compared to the high-producer haplotype −2849G/−1082G/−819C/−592C, occurred less frequent among PPD-negative controls than among cases (OR 2.15, CI 1.3–3.6) and PPD-positive controls (OR 2.09, CI 1.2–3.5). Lower IL-10 plasma levels in homozygous −2849A/−1082A/−819C/−592C carriers, compared to homozygous −2849G/−1082G/−819C/−592C carriers, were confirmed by a IL-10 ELISA (p = 0.016). Although we did not observe differences between the TB patients and all controls, our results provide evidence that a group of individuals exposed to M. tuberculosis transmission is genetically distinct from healthy PPD positives and TB cases. In these PPD-negative individuals, higher IL-10 production appears to reflect IL-10-dependent suppression of adaptive immune responses and sustained long-term specific anergy

Variant G57E of Mannose Binding Lectin Associated with Protection against Tuberculosis Caused by Mycobacterium africanum but not by M. tuberculosis

Structural variants of the Mannose Binding Lectin (MBL) cause quantitative and qualitative functional deficiencies, which are associated with various patterns of susceptibility to infectious diseases and other disorders. We determined genetic MBL variants in 2010 Ghanaian patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) and 2346 controls and characterized the mycobacterial isolates of the patients. Assuming a recessive mode of inheritance, we found a protective association between TB and the MBL2 G57E variant (odds ratio 0.60, confidence interval 0.4–0.9, P 0.008) and the corresponding LYQC haplotype (Pcorrected 0.007) which applied, however, only to TB caused by M. africanum but not to TB caused by M. tuberculosis. In vitro, M. africanum isolates bound recombinant human MBL more efficiently than did isolates of M. tuberculosis. We conclude that MBL binding may facilitate the uptake of M. africanum by macrophages, thereby promoting infection and that selection by TB may have favoured the spread of functional MBL deficiencies in regions endemic for M. africanum

Impact of treating young children with antimalarials with or without antibiotics on morbidity: a cluster-randomized controlled trial in Ghana

Community health workers in Dangme-West district, Ghana, treated children aged 2-59 months with fever with either artesunate-amodiaquine (AAQ) or AAQ plus amoxicillin (AAQ + AMX) within a cluster-randomized controlled trial (registration no. TDR/UNDP Trial registration A: 20189). The intervention was introduced in a stepped-wedge manner. The aim of the study was reduction of mortality. This paper reports on the reduction of morbidity, notably anaemia, severe anaemia and severe illness. Clusters of 100 children were randomized in to AAQ, AAQ + AMX and pre-intervention arms. Six months later the pre-intervention clusters were randomized in to the AAQ and AAQ + AMX arms. Data were collected in eight cross-sectional surveys. Using stratified sampling, 10 clusters were randomly selected per survey. Blood samples were taken to assess haemoglobin. Caregivers were interviewed about diseases (signs and symptoms) among their children in the preceding 14 days. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine the impact on anaemia, severe anaemia and severe illness. Compared with the pre-intervention clusters, anaemia was reduced in the AAQ (OR = 0.20, 95% CI 0.12-0.33) and AAQ + AMX (OR = 0.23, 95% CI 0.15-0.36) clusters, severe anaemia was reduced in the AAQ (OR = 0.20, 95% CI 0.09-0.45) and AAQ + AMX (OR = 0.12, 95% CI 0.04-0.31) clusters and severe illness was reduced in the AAQ (OR = 0.46, 95% CI 0.26-0.80) and AAQ + AMX (OR = 0.38, 95% CI 0.22-0.63) clusters. No significant differences were found in outcome variables between the AAQ and AAQ + AMX clusters. Treating fever with antimalarials significantly reduced the prevalence of anaemia, severe anaemia and severe illness. We found no significant reduction in outcomes when the AAQ and AAQ+AMX clusters were compare

Development of a theory and evidence-based program to promote community treatment of fevers in children under five in a rural district in Southern Ghana:An intervention mapping approach

Abstract Background This paper describes the development and implementation of a program to promote prompt and appropriate care seeking for fever in children under the age of five. Designed as a multicomponent program, the intervention comprises elements to influence the behavior of caregivers of children, Community Health Workers, professional health care providers and the wider community. Methods Following the six fundamental steps of the Intervention Mapping protocol, we involved relevant stakeholders from the commencement of planning to program end. The IM protocol also recommends various behavior change methods to guide intervention development. Results The intervention components implemented were successful in achieving program goals. For example, the intervention resulted in the primary outcome of reductions in all-cause mortality of 30% and 44%, among children treated with an antimalarial and those treated with the antimalarial plus an antibiotic respectively. Most Community Health Workers were retained on the program, with an attrition rate of 21.2% over a period of 30 months and the Community Health Workers rate of adherence to performance guidelines was high at 94.6%. Conclusion We were able to systematically develop a theory- and evidence-based health promotion program based on the Intervention Mapping protocol. This article contributes to the response to recent calls for a more detailed description of the development of interventions and trials. The intervention mapping approach can serve as a guide for others interested in developing community- based health interventions in similar settings

Assessment of the adherence of community health workers to dosing and referral guidelines for the management of fever in children under 5 years: a study in Dangme West District, Ghana

Community health workers (CHW) manage simple childhood illnesses in many developing countries. Information on CHWs' referral practices is limited. As part of a large cluster-randomised trial, this study assessed CHWs' adherence to dosing and referral guidelines. Records of consultations of children aged 2-59 months with fever managed by CHWs were analysed. Appropriate use of drugs was defined as provision of the correct drug pack(s) for the child's age group. Symptoms requiring referral were categorised into danger signs, respiratory distress and symptoms indicating other illnesses. Multivariate logistic regression examined symptoms most likely to be noted as requiring referral and those associated with provision of a written referral. Most children (11 659/12 330; 94.6%) received the appropriate drug. Only 161 of 1758 (9.2%) children who, according to the guidelines required referral were provided with a written referral. Not drinking/breastfeeding, persistent vomiting, unconsciousness/lethargy, difficultly breathing, fast breathing, bloody stool, sunken eyes and pallor were symptoms significantly associated with being identified by CHWs as needing referral or receiving a written referral. CHWs' adherence to dosing guidelines was high. Adherence to referral guidelines was inadequate. More effort needs to be put into strengthening referral practices of CHWs within comparable community programme