Does Sex Really Sell? Paradoxical Effects of Sexualization in Advertising on Product Attractiveness and Purchase Intentions

To test the “sex sells” assumption, we examined how Italian men and women react to sexualized advertising. Women showed lower product attractiveness and purchase intentions toward products presented with sexualized female models than with neutral ads, whereas men were unaffected by ads’ sexualization (Study 1, n = 251). Study 2 (n = 197) replicated the overall results. Study 3 (n = 198) tested hostile sexism as a moderator as well as negative emotions as a mediator of consumers’ responses. Especially men with higher hostile sexism showed more purchase intentions after viewing female sexualized ads than neutral ads.Moreover, women’s lower consumer responses toward sexualized female ads were due to higher negative emotions. Study 4 (n = 207) included ads with both female and male models, replicating responses to female sexualization and showing that both women and men had lower product attractiveness and purchase intentions toward male sexualized ads than neutral ads. Replicating and extending Study 3’s results, women’s negative emotions was the mediator. The present study has practical implications for marketers because it suggests that “sex does not sell.” In addition, considering both the psychological damage and practical inefficacy of sexualized ads, our findings have important implications for public policy

Converting Verbs into Adjectives: Asymmetrical Memory Distortions for Stereotypic and Counterstereotypic Information

This paper investigated the hypotheses that (a) inferences from behaviors to traits would occur more frequently than vice versa, (b) this induction-deduction asymmetry would be facilitated by stereotype congruence but inhibited by incongruence, and (c) the tendency to draw trait inferences from stereotype-congruent but not from stereotype-incongruent behaviors would become more pronounced with increasing levels of Need for Cognitive Closure. Participants read information about a female or male job applicant that was in part relevant to gender, in part gender-neutral. The gender-relevant information was either stereotype-congruent or incongruent. Half of the information was presented as trait-adjectives, half as behavior-descriptive verbs. A recognition task was constructed so that some of the items (traits and behaviors) had actually been seen, some were entirely new, and some were new but had been implied by the information given. All three hypotheses were supported. Implications for intra-individual and interpersonal stereotype maintenance are discussed

The Roots of Stereotype Threat: When Automatic Associations Disrupt Girls' Math Performance

Although stereotype awareness is a prerequisite for stereotype threat effects (Steele & Aronson, 1995), research showed girls' deficit under stereotype threat before the emergence of math–gender stereotype awareness, and in the absence of stereotype endorsement. In a study including 240 six-year-old children, this paradox was addressed by testing whether automatic associations trigger stereotype threat in young girls. Whereas no indicators were found that children endorsed the math–gender stereotype, girls, but not boys, showed automatic associations consistent with the stereotype. Moreover, results showed that girls' automatic associations varied as a function of a manipulation regarding the stereotype content. Importantly, girls' math performance decreased in a stereotype-consistent, relative to a stereotype-inconsistent, condition and automatic associations mediated the relation between stereotype threat and performance

ALLA RICERCA DELLE RADICI DELLO “STEREOTYPE THREAT”: QUANDO L’ATTIVAZIONE DELLO STEREOTIPO DI GENERE SULLA MATEMATICA PRODUCE UN CALO DI PRESTAZIONE IN BAMBINE CHE NON POSSIEDONO CONSAPEVOLEZZA DELLO STEREOTIPO.

Secondo il modello della Minaccia dello Stereotipo, la salienza di uno stereotipo negativo determina un calo di prestazione nei membri del gruppo sociale stereotipato solo se questi sono consapevoli dello stereotipo che li riguarda. Tuttavia, alcuni studi hanno dimostrato che bambine di 5 anni, che non manifestano consapevolezza dello stereotipo di genere sulla matematica, ottengono risultati peggiori in test di matematica quando viene resa saliente la loro identità di genere. Per risolvere questo paradosso, in tre Studi si è testata l’ipotesi che a 6 anni i bambini possiedano associazioni automatiche coerenti con lo stereotipo di genere sulla matematica, anche in assenza di consapevolezza dello stereotipo stesso, e che tali associazioni automatiche siano responsabili della peggiore prestazione matematica delle bambine in condizioni di minaccia dello stereotipo. Bambini di prima elementare sono stati posti in tre condizioni sperimentali (stereotipica, neutra e contro-stereotipica). Per rilevare la forza delle associazioni automatiche tra le categorie matematica/bambino e italiano/bambina rispetto a matematica/bambina e italiano/bambino è stato utilizzato un Child-IAT. Ai bambini è stato successivamente chiesto di svolgere un test di matematica e infine è stata rilevata la consapevolezza degli stereotipi di genere sulle materie scolastiche. I risultati dello Studio 1 hanno confermato che a 6 anni i bambini non manifestano consapevolezza dello stereotipo, mentre associazioni automatiche stereotipiche sono presenti nelle bambine ma non nei bambini. Lo Studio 2 ha dimostrato che le associazioni automatiche sono malleabili e possono essere rafforzate o indebolite presentando immagini congruenti vs. incongruenti con lo stereotipo. Dai risultati dello Studio 3 è emerso che le bambine ottengono risultati peggiori in un test di matematica quando esposte a immagini coerenti con lo stereotipo e che tale peggioramento è mediato dalla forza delle associazioni automatiche

Women drive better if not stereotyped

A commonly held stereotype is that women are poor drivers. This stereotype is recognized and endorsed by women and girls very early on, long before taking their driving licence, nevertheless they are less involved in accidents and drive safer and less fast than men. In line with the stereotype threat theory, the present study tests the hypothesis that making the driving stereotype salient will lead women to underperform in a driving simulation task. In Experiment 1 women in the stereotype threat condition were told that the aim of the study was to detect gender differences in driving whereas in a control condition no study aim was provided. In Experiment 2, two conditions were compared: stereotype threat (same instructions as in Experiment 1), and stereotype boost (the alleged goal was to compare driving ability of young vs. old people). As predicted, the results of both experiments showed that women under stereotype threat, as compared to either control or stereotype boost participants, doubled the number of mistakes. Nevertheless, they overall expected/self-reported to drive/have driven poorly. Importantly, their level of expectation was a significant predictor of their actual driving performance only in the stereotype threat condition. Implications of these effects of stereotype threat on women's driving performance and self-assessment are discussed. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Exposure to Sexualized Advertisements Disrupts Children\u2019s Math Performance by Reducing Working Memory

Despite the recommendations from the American Psychological Association\u2019s (APA, 2007) task force on the sexualization, no known research has shown the effects of sexualized advertisements on children\u2019s cognitive abilities. The present experiments address this question with a sample of 8\u201310 year-olds. Primary school children were exposed to advertisements that portrayed sexualized vs. non-sexualized children and then were asked to complete a math test (Study 1 and Study 2) preceded by a working memory test (Study 2). As predicted, exposure to sexualized images of girls hampered girls\u2019, but not boys\u2019, math performance (Study 1, N = 79). Findings from Study 2 (N = 102) replicated Study 1\u2019s results for girls and demonstrated that sexualized ads of boys disrupted boys\u2019 math performance as well, thus indicating that same-gender sexualized images are disruptive for both girls\u2019 and boys\u2019 cognitive performance. Moreover, the detrimental effect of same-gender sexualized images on both girls\u2019 and boys\u2019 math performance was mediated by a reduction in working memory resources. These findings clearly demonstrate the damaging effects of sexualized advertisements on children\u2019s cognitive performance and suggest the urgency of implementing interventions aimed at combating sexualization in early childhood, which transmits the cultural message that having a sexy (young or adult) body is important

TV oggettivante e molestie sessuali: Esiste un nesso causale?

L’esposizione a programmi TV oggettivanti (dove le donne sono relegate al ruolo di oggetti o di mera decorazione) incide sulla probabilità di molestie sessuali nella vita reale? Per rispondere a questa domanda abbiamo condotto 2 studi. A partecipanti maschi, suddivisi in tre condizioni sperimentali, sono stati fatti vedere 3 diversi video clip: un documentario di natura, donne oggettivate, donne in professioni di prestigio. Il numero totale di barzellette sessiste inviate dai partecipanti ad una interlocutrice (fittizia) nel corso di una interazione via Internet ha rappresentato la misura di comportamento di molestia. I partecipanti hanno inoltre compilato le scale Male Role Norms Inventory e Likelihood of Sexual Harassment. Dallo Studio 1 è emerso che i partecipanti esposti al video oggettivante non solo manifestano una maggiore intenzione a molestare le donne (Likelihood of Sexual Harassment), ma molestano effettivamente con maggiore frequenza una sconosciuta interlocutrice nel corso di una interazione via Internet. Dallo Studio 2 è emerso che in seguito alla visione del video oggettivante i partecipanti manifestano una maggiore adesione alle norme tradizionali riguardante il ruolo maschile (Male Role Norms Inventory) che, a sua volta, aumenta la probabilità di molestia (Likelihood of Sexual Harassment). Nel loro insieme, i risultati dimostrano che persino una breve esposizione a materiale video che veicola un modello svilente e denigrante della donna aumenta la tendenza alle molestie e suggeriscono che i programmi TV oggettivanti rappresentino un concreto pericolo per la sicurezza e per la dignità delle donne

Young girls show implicit math-gender stereotypical associations in absence of stereotype awareness.

Whereas math-gender stereotypes have been found only starting from 9 years of age (e.g. Steffens et al., 2010), even 5-7-year old girls show performance deficits after the activation of negative stereotypes (e.g. Ambady et al., 2001). To disentangle these findings, we tested the hypothesis that implicit math-gender stereotypes could already be detected in young girls, long before explicit ones. We measured implicit and explicit gender stereotypes, math performance, and attitudes towards math and reading in 6-year-olds. We also assessed parents’ implicit and explicit gender stereotypes, and expectations for their children. Children were assigned to a stereotype threat, control, or stereotype lift condition. Girls, but not boys, revealed a strong implicit math-gender stereotype (via Child-IAT). Moreover, girls’ implicit gender stereotype significantly changed across conditions: it was stronger in the stereotype threat condition and weaker in the stereotype lift condition as compared to the control condition. Importantly, neither boys nor girls showed stereotype awareness. However, children’s attitudes were in line with gender stereotypes: boys reported a preference for math and girls self-reported a preference for reading. Interestingly, parents’ explicit stereotypes and expectations predicted girls but not boys’ attitudes. Possible intervention strategies will be discussed in the light of this early “internalization” of gender stereotypes and their malleability for girls

Quando l’implicito precede l’esplicito: gli stereotipi di genere sulla matematica in bambine e bambini di 6 anni

Prior studies suggest that awareness of gender stereotypes about math is not achieved before 8-to-9 years of age. However, there is evidence that girls have lower perceptions of math ability as compared to boys, and their math performance is disrupted when their gender identity is made salient from as early as the first elementary grade. To disentangle this apparent paradox, in the present study (N = 162) we tested the hypothesis that six- year-old children may possess automatic associations in line with the gender stereotype about math, in absence of stereotype awareness at the explicit level. Results confirmed that although six-year-old children do not manifest stereotype awareness, automatic as sociations in line with the dominant stereotype (as measured via a Child-IAT) are already present in girls, but not in boys. These findings suggest that gender stereotypes about school subjects may be acquired through automatic cognitive processes before they are manifested at the explicit level

Dimme chi sei e ti diro cosa penso: Processi di stereotipizzazione in contesti di giustificazione = Tell me who you are and I'll tell you what I think: stereotyping and accountability

Questo studio intende indagare se e come i processi di stereotipizzazone possano essere moderati da contesti di accountability. Nel presente studio ai partecipanti era chiesto di formarsi un’impressione a proposito di un target (ragazzo omosessuale). Inoltre, ai partecipanti delle condizioni sperimentali era detto di dover comunicare la loro impressione a degli studenti di psicologia (audience conosciuta: AC) oppure ad alcune persone (audience sconosciuta: AnC) mentre ai partecipanti della condizione di controllo non si menzionava alcuna audience (AA). I risultati mostrano che il livello di stereotipizzazione del target è minimo in AnC, intermedio quando i partecipanti conoscono lo stereotipo dell’audience (AC), massimo quando i partecipanti non devono giustificarsi (AA). Tale differenza di stereotipizzazione è associata ad una diversa elaborazione on-line delle informazioni. Secondo l’interpretazione dei dati da noi fornita, i partecipanti nella condizione di AnC cercano di integrare le informazioni disponibili in modo da non risiedere sulle conoscenze stereotipiche. Al contrario i partecipanti in AC sembrano adottare lo stereotipo dell’audience per elaborare le informazioni e infine i partecipanti in AA elaborerebbero le informazioni in modo categoriale. I risultati vengono discussi alla luce della teoria del cambiamento dello stereotipo. [This study aimed at investigating whether stereotyping could be moderated by situations of accountability. In the present study all participants were solicited to form an impression about a target (a gay man) but experimental participants were also asked to communicate it to an audience: psychology students (known audience: KA) vs. other persons (unknown audience: UkA) whereas the audience was not mentioned in the control condition (nA). Results showed that the level of stereotyping was minimal in the UkA condition, intermediate in the KA condition and extremely high in the no audience condition (nA). Such a difference in the level of stereotyping corresponded to a different path of on-line information processing about the target. Participants in the UkA condition integrated all the available information in order to avoid stereotypical responses, participants in the KA condition endorsed the audience’s stereotype in order to deal with the information and finally participants in the nA condition engaged in a category-based information processing. Results are discussed in line with current models of stereotype change