Työn elektroninen valvonta Suomessa

Tässä tutkimuksen loppuraportissa kuvataan tutkimuksen aineistot ja raportoidaan tutkimuksen keskeiset empiiriset havainnot. Tutkimuksen aineisto on moniosainen ja eri aineistoilla on pyritty vastaamaan eri tutkimuskysymyksiin. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on ollut selvittää suomalaisessa työelämässä käytettyjen valvontajärjestelmien yleisyyttä ja niille asetettuja tavoitteita. Lisäksi selvitettiin valvontakeinojen hyötyjä, ongelmia ja haittoja organisaation toiminnan ja tuottavuuden sekä työhyvinvoinnin näkökulmasta. Myös valvontakeinojen käyttöön liittyvät oikeudelliset normit ja niihin liittyvät soveltamis- ja tulkintaongelmat ovat tutkimuksen keskiössä. Tutkimus selvitti lisäksi mitä elektronisten valvontakeinojen yleisyydestä, hyödyistä, ongelmista ja haitoista jo tiedetään

Voluntary Organization, Participation, and Nordic Societies.

The study concentrates on voluntary organizations and participation in them. In particular voluntary sectors in Nordic societies are the point of interest. The study sets out to trace the varied discussions on voluntary organizations, third sector, and civil society. Based on a review of theoretical discussions, a general theory of voluntary organizations is developed. The theory includes social origins of voluntary organizations, their place and functions in the society, and explanation of participation in voluntary organizations. Special attention is directed to the dialectic relationship of voluntary organizations and social class. Also the interdependent relationship of voluntary organizations with the pub-lic sector receives due attention. Ordinary organization theory, what goes on inside the organizations, is to a large degree left outside discussion. This study has no independent empirical part. However, Nordic countries are used as a ´case´ for the testing of the theoretical discussion. Last chapter before conclusions presents some data on voluntary organization in the Nordic countries, which is then reflected on the general theory. Voluntary organizations can be approached from basically three perspectives: (1) as civil society, (2) as third sector, and (3) as general social activity. The approach on this study is mainly from the civil society and third sector perspectives. Important influences in the development of the theory con-cerning the civil society perspective have been Martti Siisiäinen and Norwegian researchers Per Selle, Stein Kuhnle and Kurt Klaudi Klausen. In the third sector perspective major influence has been the American initiated comparative international research project that is lead by Lester M. Salamon and Helmut K. Anheier. The project research in Finland is directed by Voitto Helander. The study starts with a definition of voluntary organizations and other related concepts such as social movements and the third sector. Voluntary organizations are defined as formal private organizations that do not aim at profit making and that are based on voluntary participation. The picture on voluntary sector that is outlined in the study is to a large degree positive. Voluntary organizations play several important social functions. First of all, they contribute to proper functioning and the stability of the democratic political system. They mediate between private interests and the political system. They also form an intermediate level between the individual and the society. By integrating people into the society they contribute to the general stability of the social system as a whole. Voluntary organizations are also an alternative to public sector and the markets. They produce collective goods and services that these for some reason are not able to provide or provide them in a unsatisfactory or insufficient manner. Still further, voluntary organizations are a central factor in the construction and reconstruction of social classifications, such as class. Participation in voluntary organizations is divided into active and passive participation. ´Passive participation´ equals passive membership. Voluntary participation is always an individual decision based on individual needs and interests but it is often affected by social and system level issues. Through socialization individuals acquire attitudes that are more or less favourable to participation, and social networks are a central channel through which individuals join organizations. On the other hand, system level structural differences and political traditions affect participation levels. Structural opportunities for participation vary significantly across social systems and across time. Nordic countries have some of the highest levels of memberships in voluntary organizations. The present day voluntary sector is rooted deeply in the social movements of nineteenth century. In addition what is common to Nordic voluntary sectors is that they have relatively low participation rates compared to high membership, their voluntary social sector is relatively weak, and voluntary organizations are closely affiliated with the state but have in any case retained relative autonomy. One important observation is that the position of voluntary organizations seems to be changing. The end of the industrial society, globalization, crisis of the welfare state, and the growing individual orientation all have affected the voluntary sector and continue to have effect in the future. It seems that voluntary organizations as formal organizations are loosing some of their centrality in democratic participation. On the other hand, their importance in recreation and general social activity has increased. It also seems likely that their role in welfare production is growing. At least they provide a potential alternative for the states struggling with costly welfare regimes.1. INTRODUCTION 8 Research questions 11 Structure of the paper 11 2. CENTRAL CONCEPTS 14 2.1 VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATION AS A CONCEPT 14 Related concepts 17 Typology of voluntary organizations 20 2.2 PARTICIPATION: INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATION 21 2.3 SOCIAL CLASS 25 3. RESEARCH ON VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 29 3.1 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES 29 3.2 FINNISH POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY ON VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 31 3.3 RESEARCH ON NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 34 3.4 CROSS-DISCIPLINARY AND INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH ON THE "THIRD SECTOR" 35 4. PLACING VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS IN SOCIAL CONTEXT 38 4.1 THEORETICAL (SOCIOLOGICAL) ORIENTATIONS TO THE STUDY OF VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS AND SOCIETY 38 4.2 GENERAL DISCUSSION: COMPETING VIEWS 41 4.3 SOCIAL ORIGINS: WHY THERE ARE VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS? 43 5. TWO PERSPECTIVES: CIVIL SOCIETY AND THIRD SECTOR 49 5.1 CIVIL SOCIETY, INTEREST MEDIATION AND VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 49 5.1.1 Social roles and functions 50 5.1.2 Criticism and problematization of the relations between voluntary organizations and the state 54 5.2 THIRD SECTOR, CRISIS OF THE WELFARE STATE AND VOLUNTARISM 57 5.2.1 What is third sector? 58 5.2.2 Third sector functions 60 5.2.3 Third sector development - development of interest 62 5.2.4 Third sector questioned 65 6. SOCIAL CLASS, COLLECTIVE ACTION, AND SOCIAL CHANGE 69 6.1 CLASS STRUCTURE, CLASS FORMATION AND ORGANIZATION IN MARXISM 69 6.2 CRISIS OF CLASS POLITICS - SOCIAL CLASSES AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN THE WORK OF KLAUS EDER 70 6.3 VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS AND THE STRUGGLE ABOUT CLASSES 72 6.4 THE PROBLEM OF DISORDER IN MARXISM AND IN NORMATIVE FUNCTIONALISM: STRUCTURAL CONTRADICTIONS AS THE FOUNDATION FOR COLLECTIVE ACTION 75 6.5 CONCLUSIONS: SOCIAL CLASS AND COLLECTIVE ACTION 79 7. THE FUTURE OF COLLECTIVE ACTION AND VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 80 (1) Growth of the middle classes - radicalization of new issues 80 (2) "End of work" 81 (3) Individualisation 82 (4) New politics and the crisis of democracy 82 (5) Globalization of economy and regional political integration 83 (6) Crisis of the welfare state 84 Summary: re-placement of politics 84 8. DETERMINANTS OF PARTICIPATION: SYSTEM, SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL LEVEL 85 8.1 INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATIONS FOR PARTICIPATION 86 8.2 SOCIAL POSITION, ATTITUDES, NETWORKS, AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES 89 8.3 SYSTEM LEVEL EXPLANATIONS 93 9. VOLUNTARY SECTOR IN THE NORDIC SOCIETIES 96 9.1 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF VOLUNTARY SECTOR IN NORDIC SOCIETIES 96 9.2 LEGAL POSITION OF VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS IN NORDIC COUNTRIES 99 9.3 OUTLINE OF THE VOLUNTARY SECTOR IN THE NORDIC COUNTRIES 101 9.4 MEMBERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION 106 10. CONCLUSIONS: VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS AND PARTICIPATION 110 REFERENCES 11

Voluntary Organization, Participation, and Nordic Societies.

The study concentrates on voluntary organizations and participation in them. In particular voluntary sectors in Nordic societies are the point of interest. The study sets out to trace the varied discussions on voluntary organizations, third sector, and civil society. Based on a review of theoretical discussions, a general theory of voluntary organizations is developed. The theory includes social origins of voluntary organizations, their place and functions in the society, and explanation of participation in voluntary organizations. Special attention is directed to the dialectic relationship of voluntary organizations and social class. Also the interdependent relationship of voluntary organizations with the pub-lic sector receives due attention. Ordinary organization theory, what goes on inside the organizations, is to a large degree left outside discussion. This study has no independent empirical part. However, Nordic countries are used as a ´case´ for the testing of the theoretical discussion. Last chapter before conclusions presents some data on voluntary organization in the Nordic countries, which is then reflected on the general theory. Voluntary organizations can be approached from basically three perspectives: (1) as civil society, (2) as third sector, and (3) as general social activity. The approach on this study is mainly from the civil society and third sector perspectives. Important influences in the development of the theory con-cerning the civil society perspective have been Martti Siisiäinen and Norwegian researchers Per Selle, Stein Kuhnle and Kurt Klaudi Klausen. In the third sector perspective major influence has been the American initiated comparative international research project that is lead by Lester M. Salamon and Helmut K. Anheier. The project research in Finland is directed by Voitto Helander. The study starts with a definition of voluntary organizations and other related concepts such as social movements and the third sector. Voluntary organizations are defined as formal private organizations that do not aim at profit making and that are based on voluntary participation. The picture on voluntary sector that is outlined in the study is to a large degree positive. Voluntary organizations play several important social functions. First of all, they contribute to proper functioning and the stability of the democratic political system. They mediate between private interests and the political system. They also form an intermediate level between the individual and the society. By integrating people into the society they contribute to the general stability of the social system as a whole. Voluntary organizations are also an alternative to public sector and the markets. They produce collective goods and services that these for some reason are not able to provide or provide them in a unsatisfactory or insufficient manner. Still further, voluntary organizations are a central factor in the construction and reconstruction of social classifications, such as class. Participation in voluntary organizations is divided into active and passive participation. ´Passive participation´ equals passive membership. Voluntary participation is always an individual decision based on individual needs and interests but it is often affected by social and system level issues. Through socialization individuals acquire attitudes that are more or less favourable to participation, and social networks are a central channel through which individuals join organizations. On the other hand, system level structural differences and political traditions affect participation levels. Structural opportunities for participation vary significantly across social systems and across time. Nordic countries have some of the highest levels of memberships in voluntary organizations. The present day voluntary sector is rooted deeply in the social movements of nineteenth century. In addition what is common to Nordic voluntary sectors is that they have relatively low participation rates compared to high membership, their voluntary social sector is relatively weak, and voluntary organizations are closely affiliated with the state but have in any case retained relative autonomy. One important observation is that the position of voluntary organizations seems to be changing. The end of the industrial society, globalization, crisis of the welfare state, and the growing individual orientation all have affected the voluntary sector and continue to have effect in the future. It seems that voluntary organizations as formal organizations are loosing some of their centrality in democratic participation. On the other hand, their importance in recreation and general social activity has increased. It also seems likely that their role in welfare production is growing. At least they provide a potential alternative for the states struggling with costly welfare regimes.1. INTRODUCTION 8 Research questions 11 Structure of the paper 11 2. CENTRAL CONCEPTS 14 2.1 VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATION AS A CONCEPT 14 Related concepts 17 Typology of voluntary organizations 20 2.2 PARTICIPATION: INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATION 21 2.3 SOCIAL CLASS 25 3. RESEARCH ON VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 29 3.1 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES 29 3.2 FINNISH POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY ON VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 31 3.3 RESEARCH ON NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 34 3.4 CROSS-DISCIPLINARY AND INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH ON THE "THIRD SECTOR" 35 4. PLACING VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS IN SOCIAL CONTEXT 38 4.1 THEORETICAL (SOCIOLOGICAL) ORIENTATIONS TO THE STUDY OF VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS AND SOCIETY 38 4.2 GENERAL DISCUSSION: COMPETING VIEWS 41 4.3 SOCIAL ORIGINS: WHY THERE ARE VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS? 43 5. TWO PERSPECTIVES: CIVIL SOCIETY AND THIRD SECTOR 49 5.1 CIVIL SOCIETY, INTEREST MEDIATION AND VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 49 5.1.1 Social roles and functions 50 5.1.2 Criticism and problematization of the relations between voluntary organizations and the state 54 5.2 THIRD SECTOR, CRISIS OF THE WELFARE STATE AND VOLUNTARISM 57 5.2.1 What is third sector? 58 5.2.2 Third sector functions 60 5.2.3 Third sector development - development of interest 62 5.2.4 Third sector questioned 65 6. SOCIAL CLASS, COLLECTIVE ACTION, AND SOCIAL CHANGE 69 6.1 CLASS STRUCTURE, CLASS FORMATION AND ORGANIZATION IN MARXISM 69 6.2 CRISIS OF CLASS POLITICS - SOCIAL CLASSES AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN THE WORK OF KLAUS EDER 70 6.3 VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS AND THE STRUGGLE ABOUT CLASSES 72 6.4 THE PROBLEM OF DISORDER IN MARXISM AND IN NORMATIVE FUNCTIONALISM: STRUCTURAL CONTRADICTIONS AS THE FOUNDATION FOR COLLECTIVE ACTION 75 6.5 CONCLUSIONS: SOCIAL CLASS AND COLLECTIVE ACTION 79 7. THE FUTURE OF COLLECTIVE ACTION AND VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 80 (1) Growth of the middle classes - radicalization of new issues 80 (2) "End of work" 81 (3) Individualisation 82 (4) New politics and the crisis of democracy 82 (5) Globalization of economy and regional political integration 83 (6) Crisis of the welfare state 84 Summary: re-placement of politics 84 8. DETERMINANTS OF PARTICIPATION: SYSTEM, SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL LEVEL 85 8.1 INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATIONS FOR PARTICIPATION 86 8.2 SOCIAL POSITION, ATTITUDES, NETWORKS, AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES 89 8.3 SYSTEM LEVEL EXPLANATIONS 93 9. VOLUNTARY SECTOR IN THE NORDIC SOCIETIES 96 9.1 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF VOLUNTARY SECTOR IN NORDIC SOCIETIES 96 9.2 LEGAL POSITION OF VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS IN NORDIC COUNTRIES 99 9.3 OUTLINE OF THE VOLUNTARY SECTOR IN THE NORDIC COUNTRIES 101 9.4 MEMBERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION 106 10. CONCLUSIONS: VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS AND PARTICIPATION 110 REFERENCES 11