Occurrence and potential human health risk of pharmaceutical residues in drinking water from Putrajaya (Malaysia)

Occurrence of pharmaceutical residues in drinking water has been widely reported in countries that have registered steady economic growth. This can exert concerns among the general consumers, prompting them to explore the potential human health risks associated with continuous exposure to pharmaceuticals. However, such an occurrence is rarely reported in developing or under-developed countries. To give more contexts, this study looked at the presence of nine pharmaceutical residues in drinking water (amoxicillin, caffeine, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, dexamethasone, diclofenac, nitrofurazone, sulfamethoxazole, and triclosan) at Putrajaya residential area in Malaysia. Additionally, the potential health risks associated with contaminated drinking water were investigated. This study has found the presence of pharmaceutical residue concentrations up to 0.38 ng/L, with the highest concentration of caffeine (0.38 ng/L) and the lowest concentration of diclofenac (0.14 ng/L). In comparison, all the nine pharmaceutical residues were substantially lower than previously reported studies. In general, Hazard Quotient (HQ) values indicated that low potential health hazards were present for all age groups. Nevertheless, quantitative occurrences of pharmaceutical residues in drinking water will help guide future toxicological studies to examine other chronic effects, while canvassing for proper framework to look into the water risk management and regulation in Malaysia

Occurrence, human health risks, and public awareness level of pharmaceuticals in tap water from Putrajaya (Malaysia)

Pharmaceutical residue pollution remains as an underexplored issue, especially in Asian countries. Along with that line, the purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrence of pharmaceutical residues in tap water and its associated potential health risks, involving a total of 80 Putrajaya residents. Besides, this study also aimed to evaluate public awareness (knowledge, attitude, and practice) levels with regards to pharmaceutical handling. The highest pharmaceutical residue occurrence was cafeine (0.38 ng/L) while the lowest was diclofenac (0.14 ng/L). These pharmaceutical residue occurrences in tap water were linked with rapid urbanization and industrialization in river water, poor removal efciencies in wastewater and drinking water treatment plants as well as improper pharmaceutical waste handling and disposal from the general public. The potential health risks (RQT) indicated residents in Putrajaya with ages between 61 and 75 were exposed to the highest health risks caused by the pharmaceutical residues in tap water. In general, low public awareness (knowledge, attitude, and practice) levels were identifed with only 44.5% of Putrajaya population having good knowledge, 27.5% having good attitude and 1.6% having good practice related to pharmaceutical handling and its efect to tap water quality. Findings of this study refected the importance of public awareness program to educate the general public on proper unused/expired handling and disposal to minimize pharmaceutical pollution