Macroevolutionary patterns in cranial and lower jaw shape of ceratopsian dinosaurs (dinosauria, ornithischia). phylogeny, morphological integration, and evolutionary rates

Organisms: Ceratopsians were herbivorous, beaked dinosaurs, ranging from 1 m to 9 m in body length, usually four-footed, and with a bony frill that extended backwards from the cranium over the nape of the neck. Known from Asia, Europe, and North America, they appeared in the Late Jurassic and persisted until the end of the Late Cretaceous. Questions: Which evolutionary processes drive the phenotypic evolution of skulls and lower jaws within Ceratopsia? What is the degree of morphological integration between the skull and lower jaw, and between the snout and frill among clades? Finally, are there any morphological evolution rate shifts across the ceratopsian phylogeny? Data: Photographs from 121 ceratopsian skulls and 122 lower jaws in lateral view, both from original photos and published pictures. Fifty-five ceratopsian species are represented in the sample. Methods: We investigated cranial and lower jaw shape changes across ceratopsians applying two-dimensional geometric morphometrics. We also investigated the morphological variation of the snout and the frill. Using phylogenetic generalized least squares regression, we estimated the degree of phylogenetic signal in size and shape data, as well as in the shape-size relationship. We performed phenotypic evolutionary rate analysis on shape data to describe phenotypic shifts across the phylogeny. Using a rarefied version of Escoufier's RV coefficient, we tested morphological integration between skulls and lower jaws, and between snouts and frills. Finally, we explored the potential link between cranial and frill shape evolution in ceratopsians and the radiation of angiosperms using a linear regression model. Results: Skull, snout, and frill shapes differ among clades (with the exception of leptoceratopsids and protoceratopsids). Lower jaws show distinct morphologies among groups. Size and shape changes are phylogenetically structured. The frill drives the morphological variation of the skull, co-varying much more with the lower jaw than with the snout. The frill appears to evolve to co-vary better with the lower jaw in the more morphologically derived clades than in basal ones. A significant linear relationship does exist between cranial shape and angiosperm occurrences, suggesting the hypothesis that the frill evolved in response to changes in dietary compositions associated with the turnover between gymnosperms and angiosperms during the Cretaceous. Significant negative shifts in evolutionary rates characterize skull, snout, frill, and lower jaw shapes, corresponding to nodes where psittacosaurids diverge from other taxa. In contrast, a significant positive shift in skull and snout shape rate of evolution characterizes the clade Ceratopsoidea. Conclusion: The frill is the main driving force in the overall cranial shape within Ceratopsia and evolved secondarily to better co-vary with the lower jaw to produce a more efficient masticatory apparatus. The changes in frill shape are correlated with the angiosperm diversification that occurred in the Cretaceous and thus correlated with changes in diet. Ceratopsians exhibit a slowdown in the phenotypic evolutionary rate in the Early Cretaceous and an acceleration of the phenotypic rate in the Late Cretaceous

Pequeños vertebrados del relleno kárstico del Pleistoceno Superior de Avetrana (Apulia, Sur de Italia)

The fossiliferous deposit (karst cavity) in La Grave, a locality near the small town of Avetrana (Taranto, south­ern Italy), has yielded numerous fossils of vertebrates. The remains of large mammals have been the subject of several studies. This paper examines the remains of small vertebrates and identifies four taxa of amphibians (Bufo bufo, Bufotes gr. B. viridis, Hyla gr. H. Arborea and Rana (s.l.) sp.), four taxa of reptiles (Testudo hermanni, Podarcis sp., Zamenis gr. Z. longissimus, Natrix natrix), and nine taxa of small mammals (Erinaceus europaeus, Crocidura suaveolens, Arvicola italicus, Microtus (Terricola) savii, Microtus (Microtus) arvalis, Apodemus gr. A. sylvaticus - A. flavicollis, Hystrix (Acanthion) vinogradovi, Oryctolagus cuniculus and Lepus corsicanus). From a biochronological point of view, the data on small and large vertebrates indicate an age between the beginning of the Late Pleistocene (MIS 5e) and the central part of MIS 3. The most recent fossiliferous layer (bed 8) is likely to have been deposited during a cooler period when compared to the previous layers.The data from small fossil vertebrates combined with those emerging from the large mammals and birds evidence the presence, near the karstic cavity, of open spaces (prairies) with pools of water, bordered by wooded areas and, not far, the presence of a rocky coastline.El depósito (cavidad kárstica) de La Grave, localidad cercana a la pequeña ciudad de Avetrana (Tarento, Italia meridional), ha dado lugar a numerosos fósiles de vertebrados. Los restos de grandes mamíferos han sido objeto de varios estudios. En este trabajo se examinan los restos de pequeños vertebrados y se identifican cuatro taxones de anfibios (Bufo bufo, Bufotes gr. B. viridis, Hyla gr. H. Arborea and Rana (s.l.) sp.), cuatro de reptiles (Testudo hermanni, Podarcis sp., Zamenis gr. Z. longissimus, Natrix natrix), y nueve de pequeños mamíferos (Erinaceus europaeus, Crocidura suaveolens, Arvicola italicus, Microtus (Terricola) savii, Microtus (Microtus) arva­lis, Apodemus gr. A. sylvaticus - A. flavicollis, Hystrix (Acanthion) vinogradovi, Oryctolagus cuniculus and Lepus corsicanus). Desde un punto de vista biocronológico, los datos sobre los vertebrados pequeños y grandes indican una edad entre el comienzo del Pleistoceno tardío (MIS 5e) y la parte central del MIS 3. Es probable que el estrato fosilífero más reciente (nivel 8) se haya depositado durante un período más frío en comparación con las capas anteriores. Los datos de pequeños vertebrados fósiles combinados con los que proceden de los grandes mamífe­ros y aves evidencian la presencia, cerca de la cavidad kárstica, de espacios abiertos (praderas) con charcos de agua, bordeados por zonas boscosas y, no muy lejos, la presencia de una costa rocosa

General rules for bosonic bunching in multimode interferometers

We perform a comprehensive set of experiments that characterize bosonic bunching of up to 3 photons in interferometers of up to 16 modes. Our experiments verify two rules that govern bosonic bunching. The first rule, obtained recently in [1,2], predicts the average behavior of the bunching probability and is known as the bosonic birthday paradox. The second rule is new, and establishes a n!-factor quantum enhancement for the probability that all n bosons bunch in a single output mode, with respect to the case of distinguishable bosons. Besides its fundamental importance in phenomena such as Bose-Einstein condensation, bosonic bunching can be exploited in applications such as linear optical quantum computing and quantum-enhanced metrology.Comment: 6 pages, 4 figures, and supplementary material (4 pages, 1 figure

Individual metering and submetering for cooling application

In 2012 the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) has set mandatory installation of individual metering and submetering systems for accounting thermal energy consumption in buildings where centralized heating/cooling sources are present, when technically feasible and cost efficient. As a consequence, direct thermal energy meters or indirect heat accounting systems have spread widely in residential buildings, for metering and sub-metering in space heating applications. On the other hand, individual metering of thermal energy in space cooling is a difficult task, due to the very different types of cooling systems and to the lack of technical and legal metrology regulation. In this paper possible solutions available for direct metering and submetering of different types of centralized cooling systems are discussed. Indeed, for direct metering application, the cooling fluid flow metering is a particularly crucial issue due to small pipe diameters and different fluid properties. Thus, the authors carried out an experimental comparison between a Coriolis flow-meter and an ultrasonic clamp-on flow-meter in the cooling fluid circuit of a direct expansion system. Tests have been performed at different operative temperature differences between flow and return, showing relative errors within ± 10%

IL4 induces IL6-producing M2 macrophages associated to inhibition of neuroinflammation in vitro and in vivo

Background: Myeloid cells, such as macrophages and microglia, play a crucial role in neuroinflammation and have been recently identified as a novel therapeutic target, especially for chronic forms. The general aim would be to change the phenotype of myeloid cells from pro- to anti-inflammatory, favoring their tissue-trophic and regenerative functions. Myeloid cells, however, display a number of functional phenotypes, not immediately identifiable as pro- or anti-inflammatory, and associated to ambiguous markers. Methods: We employed in vitro assays to study macrophage polarization/differentiation in the presence of classical polarizing stimuli such as IFNγ (pro-inflammatory) and IL4 (anti-inflammatory). We induced neuroinflammation in mice by immunization with a myelin antigen and treated diseased mice with intracisternal delivery of an IL4-expressing lentiviral vector. We analyzed clinical, pathological, and immunological outcomes with a focus on myeloid cells. Results: We found that IL6, usually considered a pro-inflammatory cytokine, was released in vitro by macrophages treated with the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL4. We show the existence of macrophages expressing IL6 along with classical anti-inflammatory markers such as CD206 and demonstrate that these cells are immunosuppressive in vitro. In neuroinflamed mice, we show that IL4 delivery in the central nervous system (CNS) is associated with clinical and pathological protection from disease, associated with increased IL6 expression in infiltrating macrophages. Conclusions: IL6 is known to mediate both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects, having two distinct ways to induce cell-signaling: either through the membrane bound receptor (anti-inflammatory) or through trans-signaling (pro-inflammatory). We show here that IL6-expressing macrophages are associated to protection from neuroinflammation, suggesting that IL6 anti-inflammatory properties prevail in the CNS, and calling for a general reconsideration of IL6 in macrophage polarization

Small vertebrates from the Late Pleistocene of Avetrana (Apulia, southern Italy) karst filling

The fossiliferous deposit (karst cavity) in La Grave, a locality near the small town of Avetrana (Taranto, southern Italy), has yielded numerous fossils of vertebrates. The remains of large mammals have been the subject of several studies. This paper examines the remains of small vertebrates and identifies four taxa of amphibians (Bufo bufo, Bufotes gr. B. viridis, Hyla gr. H. Arborea and Rana (s.l.) sp.), four taxa of reptiles (Testudo hermanni, Podarcis sp., Zamenis gr. Z. longissimus, Natrix natrix), and nine taxa of small mammals (Erinaceus europaeus, Crocidura suaveolens, Arvicola italicus, Microtus (Terricola) savii, Microtus (Microtus) arvalis, Apodemus gr. A. sylvaticus - A. flavicollis, Hystrix (Acanthion) vinogradovi, Oryctolagus cuniculus and Lepus corsicanus). From a biochronological point of view, the data on small and large vertebrates indicate an age between the beginning of the Late Pleistocene (MIS 5e) and the central part of MIS 3. The most recent fossiliferous layer (bed 8) is likely to have been deposited during a cooler period when compared to the previous layers.The data from small fossil vertebrates combined with those emerging from the large mammals and birds evidence the presence, near the karstic cavity, of open spaces (prairies) with pools of water, bordered by wooded areas and, not far, the presence of a rocky coastline

Lentiviral-mediated administration of IL-25 in the CNS induces alternative activation of microglia

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Obesity in Prader–Willi syndrome: physiopathological mechanisms, nutritional and pharmacological approaches

Prader–Willi syndrome (PWS) is a genetic disorder caused by the lack of expression of genes on the paternally inherited chromosome 15q11.2-q13 region. The three main genetic subtypes are represented by paternal 15q11-q13 deletion, maternal uniparental disomy 15, and imprinting defect. Clinical picture of PWS changes across life stages. The main clinical characteristics are represented by short stature, developmental delay, cognitive disability and behavioral diseases. Hypotonia and poor suck resulting in failure to thrive are typical of infancy. As the subjects with PWS age, clinical manifestations such as hyperphagia, temperature instability, high pain threshold, hypersomnia and multiple endocrine abnormalities including growth hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone deficiencies, hypogonadism and central adrenal insufficiency due to hypothalamic dysfunction occur. Obesity and its complications are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in PWS. Several mechanisms for the aetiology of obesity in PWS have been hypothesized, which include aberration in hypothalamic pathways of satiety control resulting in hyperphagia, disruption in hormones regulating appetite and satiety and reduced energy expenditure. However, despite the advancement in the research field of the genetic basis of obesity in PWS, there are contradictory data on the management. Although it is mandatory to adopt obesity strategy prevention from infancy, there is promising evidence regarding the management of obesity in adulthood with current obesity drugs along with lifestyle interventions, although the data are limited. Therefore, the current manuscript provides a review of the current evidence on obesity and PWS, covering physiopathological aspects, obesity-related complications and conservative management

Sorafenib plus long-acting octreotide in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Preliminary results of a multicenter ongoing study

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