Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement for Sorghum & Millets (HOPE): Baseline Survey, Tanzania, Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series Number 7

The baseline survey was made in Singida Rural and Kondoa districts of Central Tanzania. A random sample of 360 farm households was sampled, divided into treatment, diffusion, and control groups. The survey was conducted in late 2010 and the results refer to the 2009-2010 agricultural year. A table with key quantitative findings is provided at the end of this summary. Socio-economic profile: The majorities of household heads were male, and most had upper primary education. On average they farmed 2.9 ha, leaving 2.1 ha uncultivated. The primary occupation was agriculture but almost half the sample households had income from non-farm sources. Households owned farm assets valued at Tsh 237,000 and livestock assets valued at 592, 000. Almost half the households owned mobile phones. Less than one-fifth of households surveyed had access to formal credit. Average per capita income was $247 per year, equivalent to$0.7 per day, or well below the $1 per day poverty line. Access to agricultural information: Only 15 % of sample households reported participation in any form of technology transfer, such as farmer field days or demonstrations. Government extension officers are the most important source of information about new technology but contact is infrequent and neighbors remain an important source of information. Crop production: About three-quarters of the sample households planted sorghum and finger millet. Significantly fewer households planted finger millet in Kondoa, and significantly fewer households planted maize in Singida. About four in ten plots were planted using seed saved from the previous harvest. Yields of sorghum averaged 0.46 tons ha-1. No significant difference was found between the yield of local and improved sorghum varieties. Yields of finger millet and pearl millet averaged 0.68 and 0.45 tons ha-1 respectively. Only 1 % of growers applied inorganic fertilizer to sorghum or millets, and about one-fifth broadcast seed rather than row-planting. About one-third of growers used in situ water harvesting, but none used integrated Striga management. Profitability: Finger millet had the highest gross margin (203,193 Tsh ha-1), followed by maize (145,542 Tsh ha-1), and sorghum (108,330 Tsh ha-1). These figures are based on cash costs and exclude the costs of family labor. Adoption: Over half the sample households knew at least one improved variety of sorghum, but only one-third grew an improved variety. The major reasons for non-adoption were unavailability of seed and susceptibility to pests and diseases. The main traits farmers required for sorghum and finger millets were high yield, early maturity, and drought resistance. At the time of the survey, however, improved varieties of finger millet had not yet been released. Utilization: Sorghum was primarily a food crop with only 14 % of the harvest being sold whereas millets were primarily a cash crop with 81 % being sold. Nine-tenths of finger millet sold was sold at the farmgate. Low market prices were reported as a major constraint on sales of both crops. However, only 4 % of farmers were members of a Producer Marketing Grou

Dryland Cereals and Household Food Security in Tanzania: Potential and Constraints of Improved Sorghum Cultivars Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series 13

More than one third of the population in Africa is still facing undernourishment and malnutrition. While poor and food-insecure people are most often living in unfavorable agricultural zones, such as semi-arid areas, only few studies have assessed the potential of well adapted dryland cereals to contribute to local food security. Here, we analyze the case of sorghum in Tanzania, and particularly focus on the role of improved sorghum cultivars. Using survey data from smallholder farmers and econometric techniques, we show that sorghum contributes to the food supply of a household. Despite the promise of higher yields and better resistance of improved sorghum cultivars to some biotic and abiotic stresses, adoption rates are, however, still low. Our results indicate that access to information and diversified networks constitute serious adoption constraints. National extension systems are a major bottleneck in overcoming such constraint

Consumer surveys for sorghum and finger millet in Kenya and Tanzania. Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series 10

Sorghum and finger millet are two important cereal crops for farmers in semi-arid areas in Eastern Africa. Both crops are traditionally cultivated for home consumption, but in recent years market demand has increased. This offers new opportunities for smallholders to commercialize production, which is seen as a pathway for prosperity in the dry lands. The HOPE project aims to support smallholder commercialization in Eastern Africa. Understanding consumption patterns for sorghum and finger millet is important for this objective. The purpose of the consumer survey in Kenya and Tanzania was to provide an overview of sorghum and finger millet consumption compared to maize and wheat, and to understand reasons for consumption and non-consumption, in order to help develop strategies to promote sorghum and finger millet consumption. In Kenya, a total of 454 consumers were interviewed. Two urban centres (Nairobi and Kisii) and two rural locations (villages nearby selected urban locations), one each in a sorghum and finger millet production and non-production area were selected for the survey. At each location, consumers were interviewed at three different market outlets (supermarkets, small retail shops and open-air markets). In addition, Nairobi was stratified into three different strata (low, middle and high income) to capture consumption habits of different income areas of the city. The majority of respondents in Kenya consume sorghum and finger millet on a monthly basis. However, finger millet is more widely consumed than sorghum. For both crops, the highest share of consumers is found in rural areas where the crop is grown. In the case of sorghum, rural areas in non-production zones rank second, followed by urban areas in production zones. Urban areas in non-production zones (Nairobi) have the lowest share of sorghum consumers. For finger millet, urban areas in production zones rank second, followed by rural areas in non-production zones. Nairobi again ranks last. In Nairobi, high income areas have lowest share of sorghum and finger millet consumers. Maize is consumed by almost all respondents and wheat by the vast majority and by a higher share of respondents than sorghum and finger millet. The mean amount consumed in a month is also highest for maize. This holds true in all settings. Wheat ranks second and finger millet and sorghum third and fourth, respectivel

Sorghum and finger millet flour processing in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda, Socioeconomics Discussion Paper series 32

We investigated the processing of sorghum and finger millet flour in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda. Fifty-three companies processing these crops were interviewed in 2011-2012. Except for Kenya, the processing sector was dominated by small- and medium-scale companies with 8- 10 employees and an annual demand of below 50 t per year. Annual demand was highest for finger millet in Kenya (600+ t). Most firms operated below capacity because of demand constraints, inconsistent supply of raw material, and fluctuating prices for grain. Procurement of grain was primarily through traders operating without formal contracts. Two-thirds of processors in Kenya and one-third of processors in Tanzania and Uganda had experience of sourcing directly from farmers; however, because of problems enforcing contracts and with transport, they preferred to buy from traders. The main buyers of flour from these processors were urban supermarkets and small retail shops. Most processors did not have formal contracts with buyers except in Uganda. Although 62 % of processors in Tanzania claimed they were satisfied with the quality of grain they purchased, only a minority of firms in Kenya (42 %) and Uganda (31%) were satisfied with grain quality. The most important quality requirements were cleanliness and grain colour (red or white). Over 70 % of processors were willing to pay a price premium for higher quality grain. Seasonal price fluctuations ranged from 30-48 % in Tanzania and Kenya but averaged only 18 % for finger millet in Uganda. Buying prices for grain in the high season ranged from 0.30 to 0.65 USD/kg for finger millet and from 0.30 to 0.42 USD/kg for sorghum. Wholesale prices for pure flour ranged from 1-1.13 USD/kg for both sorghum and millets, with slightly higher prices for lishe flour (1.30 USD/kg) and uji flour (1.31 USD/kg). The majority of companies reported increased demand for sorghum and millet flour in the past five years, and expected demand to grow in the future, particularly for finger millet flour

DjinniChip: evaluation of a novel molecular rapid diagnostic device for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in trachoma-endemic areas.

BACKGROUND: The clinical signs of active trachoma are often present in the absence of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection, particularly following mass drug administration. Treatment decisions following impact surveys and in post-control surveillance for communities are currently based on the prevalence of clinical signs, which may result in further unnecessary distribution of mass antibiotic treatment and the increased spread of macrolide resistance alleles in 'off-target' bacterial species. We therefore developed a simple, fast, low cost diagnostic assay (DjinniChip) for diagnosis of ocular C. trachomatis for use by trachoma control programmes. METHODS: The study was conducted in the UK, Germany and Tanzania. For clinical testing in Tanzania, specimens from a sample of 350 children between the ages of 7 to 15 years, which were part of a longitudinal cohort that began in February 2012 were selected. Two ocular swabs were taken from the right eye. The second swab was collected dry, kept cool in the field and archived at - 80 °C before sample lysis for DjinniChip detection and parallel nucleic acid purification and detection/quantification by qPCR assay. RESULTS: DjinniChip was able to reliably detect > 10 copies of C. trachomatis per test and correctly identified 7/10 Quality Control for Molecular Diagnostics C. trachomatis panel samples, failing to detect 3 positive samples with genome equivalent amounts ≤ 10 copies. DjinniChip performed well across a range of typical trachoma field conditions and when used by lay personnel using a series of mock samples. In the laboratory in Tanzania, using clinical samples the sensitivity and specificity of DjinniChip for C. trachomatis was 66% (95% CI 51-78) and 94.8 (95% CI 91-97%) with an overall accuracy of 90.1 (95% CI 86.4-93). CONCLUSIONS: DjinniChip performance is extremely promising, particularly its ability to detect low concentrations of C. trachomatis and its usability in field conditions. The DjinniChip requires further development to reduce inhibition and advance toward a closed system. DjinniChip results did not vary between local laboratory results and typical trachoma field settings, illustrating its potential for use in low-resource areas to prevent unnecessary rounds of MDA and to monitor for C. trachomatis recrudescence

Immunopathogenesis of Progressive Scarring Trachoma: Results of a 4-Year Longitudinal Study in Tanzanian Children.

Trachoma is initiated during childhood following repeated conjunctival infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, which causes a chronic inflammatory response in some individuals that leads to scarring and in-turning of the eyelids in later life. There is currently no treatment to halt the progression of scarring trachoma due to an incomplete understanding of disease pathogenesis. A cohort study was performed in northern Tanzania in 616 children aged 6 to 10 years at enrollment. Every 3 months for 4 years, children were examined for clinical signs of trachoma, and conjunctival swabs were collected for C. trachomatis detection and to analyze the expression of 46 immunofibrogenic genes. Data were analyzed in relation to progressive scarring status between baseline and the final time point. Genes that were significantly associated with scarring progression included those encoding proinflammatory chemokines (CXCL5, CCL20, CXCL13, and CCL18), cytokines (IL23A, IL19, and IL1B), matrix modifiers (MMP12 and SPARCL1), immune regulators (IDO1, SOCS3, and IL10), and a proinflammatory antimicrobial peptide (S100A7). In response to C. trachomatis infection, IL23A and PDGF were significantly upregulated in scarring progressors relative to in nonprogressors. Our findings highlight the importance of innate proinflammatory signals from the epithelium and implicate interleukin 23A (IL-23A)-responsive cells in driving trachomatous scarring, with potential key mechanistic roles for PDGFB, MMP12, and SPARCL1 in orchestrating fibrosis

Characterised existing sweetpotato seed system actors, identified efficient seed distribution channels and market preferred varieties in Bukombe and Butiama districts, Tanzania

Tanzania is a major sweetpotato producer in sub-Saharan Africa. The area under sweetpotato has been rising steadily relative to main food staples. However, the yields have stagnated at around 4 t/ha compared with the potential yield of above 20 t/ha, partly due to limited access to quality seeds. Most farmers in SSA recycle seed from the previous crop or source from neighbours. This increases the probability of accumulating viruses, which may reduce the sweetpotato yield by over 50%. Studies have shown that farmers are willing to pay a premium for quality seeds. Therefore, an efficient seed distribution channel that ensures seeds move from the breeding stage to the multiplication stage without any disconnections between the nodes can provide farmers with better access to quality seed at an affordable price. However, there are disconnections in the current seed distribution channels, particularly between the public and private sectors. In addition, most farmers do not often replenish planting materials once they buy quality planting materials. There are hardly any exclusive seed multipliers in the seed value chain due to a lack of understanding about potential business opportunities. Identifying a sustainable and profitable business model for seed multipliers is important in ensuring that farmers are constantly supplied with quality planting materials when they need them. This needs greater efforts to demonstrate the benefits of using quality planting materials, establish delivery seed distribution channels to reach a large number of end-users, and strengthen farmer seed management capacities and farmer seed networks. A study was conducted in Mara and Geita regions to identify market preferred and the main sources of the sweetpotato roots. The survey on the root producers were carried to understand the acquisition and provision of the market-preferred varieties and the connections between the nodes in the existing seed distribution channels. The study also conducted key informant interviews with other key stakeholders such as the public sector (i.e., Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute-TARI). The team will propose a sustainable business model that can link formal and informal seed sectors for consistent supply of quality and market preferred planting materials to root producers. The study utilized “the structure, conduct, and performance (SCP)” tool to establish relationships in the sweetpotato seed market. The SCP paradigm postulates a causal relationship where the structure influences the conduct, and in turn, the conduct influences the performance. The structure refers to the type of market, pricing strategy, the degree of concentration of buyers and sellers, the level of product differentiation, and condition of entry in the market. The conduct is the behavior of buyers and sellers and how they react to each other strategy. The performance of the seed market considers indicators such as profit of the seed and root producers and seed security indicators. The study also mapped the linkages of the existing nodes of sweetpotato seed channels by looking at the seed acquisition and provision transactions. A total of 45 traders participated in the survey in Bukombe, Butiama, Ilemela and Nyamagana districts. Most of the traders were male, and the average age was between 37- 44 years in the four districts. Most traders are members of trader’s associations, some traders were in cooperatives, and a few were in digital platforms. The traders benefited from the association through access to credit, access to market information, facilitating joint marketing, and saving cash. The markets were mainly rural (Bukombe and Butiama) and urban markets (Ilemela and Nyamagana). The type of traders in these markets were either wholesalers or middlemen (aggregators), with most markets operating the whole day, where the contract between sellers and buyers is largely oral. The high season when the supply of sweetpotato roots is high in the market ran from February to June, while the low season runs from July to November. Overall, Polista (62%), Mage (40%), and Ukimwi (28%) were the three most traded in the market, but there were district differentials in the traded varieties. For instance, Ukerewe (56%) was the most traded variety in Butiama. The common attributes liked about these varieties include high dry matter, big root size, good taste for Polista, high dry matter, good color and high market demand for Ukimwi, long shelf life, high market demand, and good color of the flesh for Mage. The three most disliked attributes in Polista were late maturing, short storage life, and susceptibility to pests and diseases. In Ukimwi susceptible to pests and diseases, limited supply of planting material, and small size of the root. Low dry matter, late maturing, and high-water content were the three most disliked attributes of Mage variety. In the root and seed producers survey, a total of 110 households from the Bukombe and Butiama district participated in the rapid seed system assessment survey after being identified as a major source to sweetpotato markets in the region. The proportion of root producers who also produced seeds was higher in Bukombe (72%) than Butiama (42%), where the majority of the seed producers were not trained. Most producers produce seeds for their own use. However, the neighbor farmers play a dominant role in both seed acquisition and seed provision. The existing root buyers include wholesalers, commission agents/aggregators, retailers, and NGOs. Most farmers sell the roots to wholesale traders, followed by commission agents and retailers. The median size for sweetpotato root plots was 0.8 hectares in both districts, while the average size for sweetpotato seed plots was 0.2 hectares in Bukombe and 0.32 hectares in Butiama. The average root yield was 2,461 kg/acre in Bukombe and 2060kg/acre in Butiama. The average seed yield was 5,695kg/acre in Bukombe and 3,140 kg/acre in Butiama. Overall, the three most preferred varieties are Polista, Ukimwi, and Mage, but varied with the district. Polista variety was liked because of its high dry matter content, better taste, and high market demand. The traits that farmers disliked include matures late, has low yield and is not resistant to SPW. Ukimwi was preferred because it matures early, has high market demand, high dry matter. The traits producers disliked were less resistant to SPVD, not stress-tolerant, short shelf life, and limited access to planting material. The preferred attributes in Mage include high market demand, good flesh color, early maturing, and high root yield. However, the variety is late maturing, has low dry matter content, has a shorter shelf life, and less resistant to stress (drought and poor soils). About 90% of producers sell/share sweetpotato roots. The roots are mostly sold to wholesale traders, followed by commission agents, retailers, and NGOs. The average quantity sold by the respondents in the last year was about 8924 kg in Bukombe and 4850kg in Butiama. Only 26% and 53% of respondents sold seeds in Butiama and Bukombe, respectively. The most common varieties provided were Ukimwi (33%), Pisi tatu (27%), Uso wa mchina (20%) in Bukombe. Polista (57%) and Ukerewe (29%) were the most common varieties in Butiama. Farmers predominantly sold to sweetpotato producers in both Butiama (86%) and Bukombe (97%). Other seed buyers were international organizations, and local NGOs. Respondents sold to producers mainly because they were friends and relatives without expectations but sold to local NGOs, international organizations because they give higher prices. About 47% in Bukombe and 28% Butiama acquired seed from elsewhere. Ukimwi was the most dominant variety in Bukombe, while most respondents in Butiama received Polista and Ukerewe. At least half of the respondents chose these varieties because they were market preferred. The seeds were mainly sourced from sweetpotato producers because of close relationships (relatives and friends). TARI produced Kabode, Kakamega, NASPOT 12, and Mataya varieties through rapid multiplication in screen houses and conventional methods in open field plots. The three most preferred varieties were Kabode, NASPOT 12, and Mataya. All of them are early maturing, high yielding, with better nutritional benefits. Kabode and NASPOT 12 are also tolerant to SPVD and SPW. TARI has regular contact with about 20 decentralized vine multipliers and 30 farmers. In the last one year, TARI provided 5 types of varieties The five types of varieties that TARI provided were Kabode, Kakamega, NASPOT 12, Mataya, and Ejumula, where the seed class was basic. TARI provided a total of 1257 bundles to local NGOs in February at TSH 2500 for each bundle of 100 cuttings of 30cm size

Progression of scarring trachoma in Tanzanian children: A four-year cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Trachoma is a progressive blinding disease initiated by infection of the conjunctiva with Chlamydia trachomatis. Repeated infections are thought to cause chronic inflammation, which drives scarring, leading to in-turning of the eyelids. The relationship between C. trachomatis, clinical inflammation and scarring development in children is not fully understood due to a paucity of longitudinal studies with infection data at frequent follow-up. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This longitudinal cohort study took place in northern Tanzania. Children aged 6-10 years at baseline were eligible for inclusion. Participants were visited every three months for four years. Clinical signs and conjunctival swabs for C. trachomatis detection by qPCR were collected at each time-point. Conjunctival photographs from baseline and final time-points were graded and compared side-by-side to determine scarring incidence and progression. Of the 666 children enrolled in the study, outcome data were obtained for 448. Scarring progression was detected in 103/448 (23%) children; 48 (11%) of which had incident scarring and 55 (12%) had progression of existing scarring. Scarring was strongly associated with increasing episodes of trachomatous papillary inflammation (TP). Weaker associations were found between episodes of C. trachomatis infection and follicular trachoma (TF) with scarring progression in unadjusted models, which were absent in multivariable analysis after adjusting for inflammation (multivariable results: C. trachomatis p = 0.44, TF p = 0.25, TP p = <0.0001, age p = 0.13, female sex p = 0.05). Individuals having TP at 30% or more of the time-points they were seen had an odds ratio of 7.5 (95%CI = 2.7-20.8) for scarring progression relative to individuals without any TP detected during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the effect of infection on scarring progression is mediated through papillary inflammation, and that other factors contributing to the development of inflammation, in addition to C. trachomatis infection, may be important in driving conjunctival scarring progression in children. The addition of TP as a measure in trachoma control programs would provide an indication of the future risk of developing scarring sequelae

The conjunctival microbiome before and after azithromycin mass drug administration for trachoma control in a cohort of Tanzanian children.

Background: Trachoma, caused by ocular infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, is a neglected tropical disease that can lead to blinding pathology. Current trachoma control programmes have successfully used mass drug administration (MDA) with azithromycin to clear C. trachomatis infection and reduce transmission, alongside promoting facial cleanliness for better personal hygiene and environmental improvement. In areas of low-trachoma endemicity, the relationship between C. trachomatis infection and trachomatous disease weakens, and non-chlamydial bacteria have been associated with disease signs. Methods: We enrolled a cohort of children aged 6-10 years from three adjacent trachoma endemic villages in Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions, Northern Tanzania. Children were divided into four clinical groups based on the presence or absence of ocular C. trachomatis infection and clinical signs of trachomatous papillary inflammation (TP). To determine the impact of treatment on the ocular microbiome in these clinical groups, we performed V4-16S rRNA sequencing of conjunctival DNA from children 3-9 months pre-MDA (n = 269) and 3 months post-MDA (n = 79). Results: Chlamydia trachomatis PCR-negative, no TP children had the highest pre-MDA ocular microbiome alpha diversity, which was reduced in C. trachomatis infected children and further decreased in those with TP. Pre-MDA, Haemophilus and Staphylococcus were associated with C. trachomatis infection with and without concurrent TP, while Helicobacter was increased in those with TP in the absence of current C. trachomatis infection. Post-MDA, none of the studied children had ocular C. trachomatis infection or TP. MDA increased ocular microbiome diversity in all clinical groups, the change was of greater magnitude in children with pre-MDA TP. MDA effectively reduced the prevalence of disease causing pathogenic non-chlamydial bacteria, and promoted restoration of a normal, healthy conjunctival microbiome. Conclusion: We identified Helicobacter as a non-chlamydial bacterium associated with the clinical signs of TP. Further investigation to determine its relevance in other low-endemicity communities is required. MDA was shown to be effective at clearing C. trachomatis infection and other non-chlamydial ocular pathogens, without any detrimental longitudinal effects on the ocular microbiome. These findings suggest that azithromycin MDA may be valuable in trachoma control even in populations where the relationship between clinical signs of trachoma and the prevalence of current ocular C. trachomatis infection has become dissociated