Livelihood diversification and the expansion of artisanal mining in rural Tanzania: drivers and policy implications

This paper provides an extended analysis of livelihood diversification in rural Tanzania, with special emphasis on artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). Over the past decade, this sector of industry, which is labour-intensive and comprises an array of rudimentary and semi-mechanized operations, has become an indispensable economic activity throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, providing employment to a host of redundant public sector workers, retrenched large-scale mine labourers and poor farmers. In many of the region’s rural areas, it is overtaking subsistence agriculture as the primary industry. Such a pattern appears to be unfolding within the Morogoro and Mbeya regions of southern Tanzania, where findings from recent research suggest that a growing number of smallholder farmers are turning to ASM for employment and financial support. It is imperative that national rural development programmes take this trend into account and provide support to these people

Rice value chain analysis in Tanzania: Identification of constraints, opportunities and upgrading strategies

The importance of rice ( Oryza sativa L.) as a food and cash crop in Eastern Africa, is increasing, but its value chain is becoming complex. In 2012/13, rice value chain analysis was conducted in rice farming systems of Lake, Eastern and Southern-Highlands zones of Tanzania. A sample of 240 producers, 60 traders and 30 processors was involved in the study. The aim of this study was to enhance rice actors with knowledge of the rice value chain, and identify feasible upgrading strategies. The study results revealed that rice was staple crop for more than 50% of the communities in Kilombero, Kyela and Mvomero districts; and less than 30% in Rorya, Mbarali and Maswa districts. It was also an important cash crop (79 - 100%) in all districts. About 44 and 61% of the total crop area cultivated per household, in lowland rainfed and irrigated ecosystems, respectively were under rice cultivation. SARO 5 was the only improved variety widely grown by 27% of farmers out of 32 varieties. Rice yield ranged from 1.5 to 4.3 t ha-1 and varied greatly by ecosystem and variety. About 61-93% of farmers sold their rice paddy to collectors, used non-standard measurements. Farmers profits ranged from US $206.63 to 994.85 per hectare. Producer\u2019s share of selling rice ranged from 34 to 40This implies that upgrading strategies are required that can increase producers\u2019 market share and improve competitiveness of rice value chain.L\u2019importance du riz ( Oryza sativa L.) comme produit de consummation et et d\u2019echanges commerciaux en Afrique de l\u2019Est va grandissante, mais la chaine de valeur du riz de plus en plus complexe. En 2012/13 l\u2019analyse de la chaine de valeur du riz a ete conduite dans les systemes de culture de riz dans la zone lacustre de l\u2019Est et Sud de la Tanzannie. L\u2019etude s\u2019est servid\u2019un echantillon de 240 producteurs, 60 commercants et 30 transformateurs de riz. L\u2019objectif de l\u2019etude etait de doter les acteurs du riz de connaissances et informations sur la chaine de valeur et identifier des strategies possibles de modernization. L\u2019etude a revele que le riz est un produit vivrier de grande consommation pour plus de 50des districts de Kilombero, Kyela et Mvomero et moins de 30districts de Rorya, Mbarali et Maswa. Le riz est aussi une culture de rente (79 - 100Environ 44 et 61par chaque menage est plantee en riz. Sur 32 varietes, SARO 5 etait la seule variete amelioree largement cultivee par 27rendement en grain du riz variait de 1,5 t ha-1 to 4,3 t ha-1 ceci en fonction de l\u2019ecosysteme et de la variete. Environ 61 \u2013 93des producteurs vendent leur riz paddy a des collectionneurs qui utilisent des outils de mesure non conventionnels. Les benefices des paysans varient de 206,63$ a 994.85 $ par hectare. La part des producteurs varient de 34 a 40%. Ceci indique que des strategies de modernisation sont necessaires et pourrait accroitre le revenue des producteurs mais aussi ameliorer la competitivite de la filiere

The importance of tropical root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and factors affecting the utility of Pasteuria penetrans as a biocontrol agent

The conclusions of a collaborative study of the occurrence and importance of root-knot nematodes (RKN, Meloidogyne spp,) and of their control agent, Pasteuria penetrans, in parts of Europe, Africa, South America and the Caribbean are presented. Root-knot nematodes were estimated to reduce the yields of a wide range of horticultural crops by > 25% in Ecuador, Malawi and Tanzania, and by ca 10% in Trinidad and Tobago. The greatest proportion of infected crops were observed in Ecuador (205 of 207) and the least in Trinidad and Tobago (70 of 174). The mean gall index was greatest in Ecuador (5.5). Levels of galling were least in Senegal (1.6), even though 89% of crops were infested and virulent M. mayaguensis was widespread. In all countries. M. incognita and M. javanica were the most abundant species, but M. hispanica occurred widely in Burkina Faso, even in newly cultivated areas in the Sahile. Several new esterase phenotypes were detected, especially in Ecuador and Malawi. Juveniles (J2) collected from the soil during the surveys were examined for attached spores of P. penetrans. It was widespread (20 to 60% of RKN populations). except in Malawi and Tanzania 8 to 5% for every increase of one in the gall index. Yields were increased by alternating tomato with leguminous crops in some trials, but not in others. It is proposed that, in natural infections, mutual selection produces a dynamic balance between the P. penetrans and the RKN whereby levels of infection are rarely suppressive. However, the introduction of an "exotic" isolate of P. penetrans, with a different attachment profile, can disturb this balance, resulting in a greatly increased proportion of infected J2 and females, increased yields of spores and more suppression of RKN populations.Peer reviewe

Thermal time and ecological strategies - a unifying hypothesis

Rates of embryogenesis and of development and growth in several nematodes are linearly related to temperature over a considerable range. On this basis, published data on the thermal time requirements are compared for a tropical and a temperate species of plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne javanica and M. hapla respectively, the two being closely related and morphologically and biologically similar. M. hapla has a lower base temperature (T-b) and a higher thermal constant (S) than M. javanica with the relative values being almost inversed. Consequently, above their respective T-b values the slope of the relationship between rate of development and temperature was greater for the tropical species than that for the temperate species. A mathematical exploration of the relationship between T-b and S was made assuming that, over a narrow range, Tb X S was a constant. With this assumption, for any given average environmental temperature (T-e) the optimum base temperature for minimum developmental duration was T-e/2, and the temperature at which the duration of development was equal for the otherwise identical species was shown to be the sum of their base temperatures. The practical effect of the differences in T-b and S was to give M. hapla, the temperate species, a shorter life cycle and hence a competitive advantage at temperatures below 21 Angstrom C and M. javanica, the tropical species, the advantage above that temperature. It is argued that a negative correlation between T-b and S is likely to be widespread, and provides a mechanism for regulating the distributions of related, competing organisms. Support for the hypothesis that the value of S tends to decrease as T-b increases is derived from data on the embryogenesis of an animal parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus and from seed germination studies. Contrary results and exceptions are also briefly discussed. The observed interaction between T-b and S may be fundamental to many poikilothermic organisms and plants and provides an explanation for tropical species generally having higher T-b values than temperate ones. The ecological implications of different values of T-b and of S, including their relationship with organisms which are ''r'' or ''K'' strategists are briefly discussed

Occupying the margins: Labour integration and social exclusion in artisanal mining in Tanzania

This article examines the marginal position of artisanal miners in sub-Saharan Africa, and considers how they are incorporated into mineral sector change in the context of institutional and legal integration. Taking the case of diamond and gold mining in Tanzania, the concept of social exclusion is used to explore the consequences of marginalization on people's access to mineral resources and ability to make a living from artisanal mining. Because existing inequalities and forms of discrimination are ignored by the Tanzanian state, the institutionalization of mineral titles conceals social and power relations that perpetuate highly unequal access to resources. The article highlights the complexity of these processes, and shows that while legal integration can benefit certain wealthier categories of people, who fit into the model of an 'entrepreneurial small-scale miner', for others adverse incorporation contributes to socio-economic dependence, exploitation and insecurity. For the issue of marginality to be addressed within integration processes, the existence of local forms of organization, institutions and relationships, which underpin inequalities and discrimination, need to be recognized