Isolation of the Pneumocystis carinii dihydrofolate synthase gene and functional complementation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Pneumocystis carinii gene encoding the enzyme dihydrofolate synthase (DHFS), which is involved in the essential biosynthesis of folates, was isolated from clones of the Pneumocystis genome project, and sequenced. The deduced P. carinii DHFS protein shares 38% and 35% identity with DHFS of Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, respectively. P. carinii DHFS expressed from a plasmid functionally complemented a S. cerevisiae mutant with no DHFS. Comparison of available DHFSs with highly similar folylpolyglutamate synthases allowed the identification of potential signatures responsible for the specificities of these two classes of enzymes. The results open the way to experimentally analyse the structure and function of P. carinii mono-functional enzyme DHFS, to investigate a possible role of DHFS in the resistance to antifolates of P. jirovecii, the species infecting specifically humans, and to develop a new class of antifolate

Structure of S. aureus HPPK and the Discovery of a New Substrate Site Inhibitor

The first structural and biophysical data on the folate biosynthesis pathway enzyme and drug target, 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase (SaHPPK), from the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is presented. HPPK is the second essential enzyme in the pathway catalysing the pyrophosphoryl transfer from cofactor (ATP) to the substrate (6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin, HMDP). In-silico screening identified 8-mercaptoguanine which was shown to bind with an equilibrium dissociation constant, Kd, of ∼13 µM as measured by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR). An IC50 of ∼41 µM was determined by means of a luminescent kinase assay. In contrast to the biological substrate, the inhibitor has no requirement for magnesium or the ATP cofactor for competitive binding to the substrate site. The 1.65 Å resolution crystal structure of the inhibited complex showed that it binds in the pterin site and shares many of the key intermolecular interactions of the substrate. Chemical shift and 15N heteronuclear NMR measurements reveal that the fast motion of the pterin-binding loop (L2) is partially dampened in the SaHPPK/HMDP/α,β-methylene adenosine 5′-triphosphate (AMPCPP) ternary complex, but the ATP loop (L3) remains mobile on the µs-ms timescale. In contrast, for the SaHPPK/8-mercaptoguanine/AMPCPP ternary complex, the loop L2 becomes rigid on the fast timescale and the L3 loop also becomes more ordered – an observation that correlates with the large entropic penalty associated with inhibitor binding as revealed by ITC. NMR data, including 15N-1H residual dipolar coupling measurements, indicate that the sulfur atom in the inhibitor is important for stabilizing and restricting important motions of the L2 and L3 catalytic loops in the inhibited ternary complex. This work describes a comprehensive analysis of a new HPPK inhibitor, and may provide a foundation for the development of novel antimicrobials targeting the folate biosynthetic pathway

Molecular Mechanisms of Alzheimer’s Disease III

This Special Issue of IJMS is the third in the series: Molecular Mechanisms of Alzheimer’s Disease [...

Simvastatin, Its Antimicrobial Activity and Its Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease

Simvastatin, a blockbuster drug for treating hypercholesterolemia, has multifactorial benefits as an antimicrobial agent and plays a preventative role in reducing the incidence of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). Although most of the beneficial effects of simvastatin have been attributed to its ability to reduce cholesterol levels, recent scientific studies have suggested that its benefits are largely due to its pleiotropic effects in targeting other pathways, e.g., by inhibiting protein lipidation. There are certain pleiotropic effects that can be predicted from the inhibition of the mevalonate pathway; however, some of the effects of simvastatin in proteostasis lead to reduced levels of amyloid beta, the key contributor to AD. This review discusses the use of simvastatin as an antimicrobial agent and anti-AD drug

Novel endoperoxides: Synthesis and activity against 'Candida' species

Fifteen new endoperoxides have been synthesised and tested for activity against pathogenic 'Candida' species. These endoperoxides can be prepared in high yields, in one to three steps, from inexpensive starting materials. Despite chemical and structural similarities, their inhibitory activity against 'Candida' growth varied greatly from one endoperoxide to another, and one species to another. This study of susceptibility to endoperoxide compounds presented here may lead to the development of potent new antifungal agents

Dihydropteroate Synthase Mutations in Pneumocystis jiroveci Can Affect Sulfamethoxazole Resistance in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model

Dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) mutations in Pneumocystis jiroveci have been associated epidemiologically with resistance to sulfamethoxazole (SMX). Since P. jiroveci cannot be cultured, inherent drug resistance cannot be measured. This study explores the effects of these mutations in a tractable model organism, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Based on the sequence conservation between the DHPS enzymes of P. jiroveci and S. cerevisiae, together with the structural conservation of the three known DHPS structures, DHPS substitutions commonly observed in P. jiroveci were reverse engineered into the S. cerevisiae DHPS. Those mutations, T(597)A and P(599)S, can occur singly but are most commonly found together and are associated with SMX treatment failure. Mutations encoding the corresponding changes in the S. cerevisiae dhps were made in a yeast centromere vector, p414FYC, which encodes the native yeast DHPS as part of a trifunctional protein that also includes the two enzymes upstream of DHPS in the folic acid synthesis pathway, dihydroneopterin aldolase and 2-amino-4-hydroxymethyl dihydropteridine pyrophosphokinase. A yeast strain with dhps deleted was employed as the host strain, and transformants having DHPS activity were recovered. Mutants having both T(597) and P(599) substitutions had a requirement for p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), consistent with resistance being associated with altered substrate binding. These mutants could be adapted for growth in the absence of PABA, which coincided with increased sulfa drug resistance. Upregulated PABA synthesis was thus implicated as a mechanism for sulfa drug resistance for mutants having two DHPS substitutions

Mutations in the Pneumocystis jirovecii DHPS Gene Confer Cross-Resistance to Sulfa Drugs

Pneumocystis jirovecii is a major opportunistic pathogen that causes Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) and results in a high degree of mortality in immunocompromised individuals. The drug of choice for PCP is typically sulfamethoxazole (SMX) or dapsone in conjunction with trimethoprim. Drug treatment failure and sulfa drug resistance have been implicated epidemiologically with point mutations in dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) of P. jirovecii. P. jirovecii cannot be cultured in vitro; however, heterologous complementation of the P. jirovecii trifunctional folic acid synthesis (PjFAS) genes with an E. coli DHPS-disrupted strain was recently achieved. This enabled the evaluation of SMX resistance conferred by DHPS mutations. In this study, we sought to determine whether DHPS mutations conferred sulfa drug cross-resistance to 15 commonly available sulfa drugs. It was established that the presence of amino acid substitutions (T(517)A or P(519)S) in the DHPS domain of PjFAS led to cross-resistance against most sulfa drugs evaluated. The presence of both mutations led to increased sulfa drug resistance, suggesting cooperativity and the incremental evolution of sulfa drug resistance. Two sulfa drugs (sulfachloropyridazine [SCP] and sulfamethoxypyridazine [SMP]) that had a higher inhibitory potential than SMX were identified. In addition, SCP, SMP, and sulfadiazine (SDZ) were found to be capable of inhibiting the clinically observed drug-resistant mutants. We propose that SCP, SMP, and SDZ should be considered for clinical evaluation against PCP or for future development of novel sulfa drug compounds

Design of endoperoxides with anti-'Candida' activity

Broad antifungal structure–activity relationships governing epoxy-endoperoxides 2 and 3 and their parent endoperoxides 1 are reported. Their inhibitory activity against 'Candida albicans' in conjunction with hemolytic activity and/or growth inhibition of cultured mammalian cells are reported. This information provided guidance for the further development of endoperoxide and epoxy-endoperoxides as topical antifungal agents