Greywater reuse for toilet flushing at a university academic and residential building

Interest in water reuse is increasing all over the world and particularly in South Africa, because of its potential to supplement scarce freshwater resources in the face of increased demand and aridity. If water reuse is to be implemented, it must be done sustainably. This study: (i) describes the perceptions of beneficiaries before and after greywater reuse (GWR) implementation; (ii) determines the attributes of greywater that were important to beneficiaries when reusing greywater and their willingness to pay for these attributes; and (iii) undertakes an economic analysis of the implemented GWR systems. To this end, two GWR systems for toilet flushing were installed. The first was installed at a university academic building at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, and the second at a university residence at the University of Johannesburg. Perceptions highlighted included respondents’ preference to reuse greywater for toilet flushing rather than irrigation, and the greater preference for GWR for toilet flushing expressed for the university academic relative to the university residential building. In sequence, ‘smell’, ‘colour’ and ‘greywater tariff’ emerged as the attributes of greywater that were important to respondents. In terms of payback period, net present value and benefit-cost ratio, both systems generated a net loss and were economically unfeasible.Keywords: greywater reuse for toilet flushing, perceptions, economic

Short-duration exposure to 2.45 GHz microwave radiation induces DNA damage in Sprague Dawley rat’s reproductive systems

The genotoxic effects of 2.45 GHz microwave (MW) radiation on the testis and ovary of Sprague Dawley rats was investigated. The animals were exposed to varying levels of specific absorption rate (SAR) of 0 (control), 0.48, 0.95, 1.43, 1.91, 2.39, 2.90, 3.40, 3.80 and 4.30 Wkg-1, for 10 min. The induction of DNA damages was assessed using DNA direct amplification of length polymorphisms (DALP) and validated with single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) comet assay for same cells at SAR 2.39 Wkg-1. Potential damage at the organ level was assessed by histopathological study. The results show significant differences in the Olive moment and % DNA in the blood of the exposed animals when compared with the control (p < 0.05). Hyperchromasia was observed in the ovary of the animals exposed to MW radiation. Also, there was reduction in the number of germ cells and cell disorganization in the testis of exposed group with increasing SARs. These results suggest that MW radiation has the potential to affect both male and female fertility adversely.Keywords: 2.45 GHz microwave radiation, histopathology, DNA single strand break, ovary, testisAfrican Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 12(2), pp. 115-12

Comparing the use and content of antenatal care in adolescent and older first-time mothers in 13 countries of west Africa: a cross-sectional analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys

Background West Africa has the highest proportion of married adolescents, and the highest adolescent childbirth rate and maternal death rate in sub-Saharan Africa. However, few studies have focused on the type and quality of health care accessed by pregnant young women in countries in this subregion. Methods We obtained data from Demographic and Health Surveys done between 2010 and 2014, to compare the use, timing, source, and components of antenatal care between adolescent and older first-time mothers in 13 west African countries. The sample included primiparous women who were aged 15–49 years with a livebirth in the 5-year survey recall period, and women were assigned to one of three groups on the basis of age at the time of childbirth: adolescent (10–19 years), young adults (20–24 years), or adults (25 years or older). We calculated the percentage of women who: attended at least one antenatal care visit, completed at least one visit during the first trimester of pregnancy, attended four or more appointments in antenatal care, and received four components of antenatal care (blood pressure measurement, urine tests, blood tests, and information on complications), as well as the sector where the women received care. We primarily report the comparison between adolescents and young adults. Findings In 2016, we acquired data from the Demographic Health Surveys from 13 west African countries between 2010 and 2014 on primiparous women. The study sample was 19 211 women, of whom 10 025 (52%) were adolescents, 6099 (32%) were young adults, and 3087 (16%) were adults. Overall, 17 386 (91%) of 19 211 first-time mothers made use of antenatal care facilities on at least one occasion. 3597 (41%) of 8741 adolescents compared with 8202 (47%) of all 17 386 women began the use of antenatal care during the first trimester. Across west Africa, 5430 (62%) of 8741 adolescents had four or more antenatal care visits compared with 4067 (71%) of 5717 young adults and 2358 (81%) of 2928 adults. Of those who had four or more visits to antenatal care, 2779 (51%) of 5430 adolescents received all the antenatal care components examined compared with 2488 (61%) of 4067 young adults and 1600 (68%) of 2358 adults. Although most women received antenatal care in the public sector, in nine of the 13 countries, the proportion of women that used the private sector was higher in older mothers. Interpretation Although a large percentage of west African adolescents use some antenatal care for their first birth, they seek care later, make fewer visits during pregnancy, and receive fewer components of care than older first-time mothers. Governments must ensure the pregnancy care accessed by adolescent mothers is of high quality and tailored to meet their needs

Salmonella in Broiler Litter and Properties of Soil at Farm Location

Contamination of litter in a broiler grow-out house with Salmonella prior to placement of a new flock has been shown to be a precursor of the flock's Salmonella contamination further down the production continuum. In the southern USA, broiler grow-out houses are primarily built on dirt pad foundations that are placed directly on top of the native soil surface. Broiler litter is placed directly on the dirt pad. Multiple grow-out flocks are reared on a single litter batch, and the litter is kept in the houses during downtime between flocks. The effects of environmental determinants on conditions in broiler litter, hence Salmonella ecology within it, has received limited attention. In a field study that included broiler farms in the states of Alabama, Mississippi and Texas we assessed Salmonella in broiler litter at the end of downtime between flocks, i.e. at the time of placement of a new flock for rearing. Here we utilized these results and the U.S. General Soil Map (STATSGO) data to test if properties of soil at farm location impacted the probability of Salmonella detection in the litter. The significance of soil properties as risk factors was tested in multilevel regression models after accounting for possible confounding differences among the farms, the participating broiler complexes and companies, and the farms' geographical positioning. Significant associations were observed between infiltration and drainage capabilities of soil at farm location and probability of Salmonella detection in the litter

Allergic Rhinitis and its Associated Co-Morbidities at Bugando Medical Centre in Northwestern Tanzania; A Prospective Review of 190 Cases.

Allergic rhinitis is one of the commonest atopic diseases which contribute to significant morbidity world wide while its epidemiology in Tanzania remains sparse. There was paucity of information regarding allergic rhinitis in our setting; therefore it was important to conduct this study to describe our experience on allergic rhinitis, associated co-morbidities and treatment outcome in patients attending Bugando Medical Centre. This was descriptive cross-sectional study involving all patients with a clinical diagnosis of allergic rhinitis at Bugando Medical Centre over a three-month period between June 2011 and August 2011. Data was collected using a pre-tested coded questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS statistical computer software version 17.0. A total of 190 patients were studied giving the prevalence of allergic rhinitis 14.7%. The median age of the patients was 8.5 years. The male to female ratio was 1:1. Adenoid hypertrophy, tonsillitis, hypertrophy of inferior turbinate, nasal polyps, otitis media and sinusitis were the most common co-morbidities affecting 92.6% of cases and were the major reason for attending hospital services. Sleep disturbance was common in children with adenoids hypertrophy (χ2 = 28.691, P = 0.000). Allergic conjunctivitis was found in 51.9%. The most common identified triggers were dust, strong perfume odors and cold weather (P < 0.05). Strong perfume odors affect female than males (χ2 = 4.583, P = 0.032). In this study family history of allergic rhinitis was not a significant risk factor (P =0.423). The majority of patients (68.8%) were treated surgically for allergic rhinitis co morbidities. Post operative complication and mortality rates were 2.9% and 1.6% respectively. The overall median duration of hospital stay of in-patients was 3 days (2 - 28 days). Most patients (98.4%) had satisfactory results at discharge. The study shows that allergic rhinitis is common in our settings representing 14.7% of all otorhinolaryngology and commonly affecting children and adolescent. Sufferers seek medical services due to co-morbidities of which combination of surgical and medical treatment was needed. High index of suspicions in diagnosing allergic rhinitis and early treatment is recommended

Lipoprotein (a), C-reactive protein and some metabolic cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 DM

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Lipoprotein (a) (LP (a) is an independent cardiovascular risk factor that is not widely studied in people of sub-Saharan African origin. The aim of this report is to determine the frequency of occurrence of elevated Lp (a) and possible relationship with total cholesterol (TCHOL), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides (TG), C reactive protein (CRP) and serum uric acid (SUA).</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>This is a cross sectional study carried out in 200 Nigerian patients with type 2 DM and 100 sex and age matched healthy Controls aged between 32-86 years. We determined the frequency of occurrence of elevated Lp (a) levels in the study subjects and compared clinical and biochemical variables between type 2 diabetic patients and non-diabetic patients. Clinical and biochemical parameters were also compared between subjects with type 2 DM who had elevated LP (a) and normal LP (a) levels. Long term glycaemic control using glycosylated haemoglobin was determined and compared in the study subjects. Test statistics used include chi square, correlation coefficient analysis and Student's t test.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The mean Lp(a) concentration differed significantly between type 2 diabetic patients and the Control subjects (18.7 (5.8) mg/dl vs 23 (6.8) mg/dl, 0.00001). Similarly, the prevalence of high LP (a) levels in type 2 DM patients was significantly higher than that of the Control subjects (12.5% vs 4%, p-0.019). The mean levels of the lipid profile parameters (TCHOL, LDL-C, TG, LDL/HDL) and CRP were significantly higher in DM patients than in the Control subjects. The mean LP (a) levels were comparable in both sexes and in DM subjects with and without hypertension. TG was the only parameter that differed significantly between subjects with elevated Lp (a) levels and those with normal Lp (a) levels. There was a significant positive correlation (r) between Lp(a) levels and TG, LDL-C. TCHOL, LDL/HDL and uric acid. No association was found between Lp(a) and clinical parameters such as age and anthropometric indices.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>We have showed that Lp (a), CRP and other CVS risk factors cluster more in patients with DM than non DM patients. Serum Lp (a) levels are not associated with anthropometric and glycaemic indices.</p

Demographic and reproductive associations with nematode infection in a long-lived mammal

Infection by macroparasites, such as nematodes, varies within vertebrate host systems; elevated infection is commonly observed in juveniles and males, and, for females, with different reproductive states. However, while such patterns are widely recognized in short-lived model systems, how they apply to long-lived hosts is comparatively understudied. Here, we investigated how infection varies with host age, sex, and female reproduction in a semi-captive population of individually marked Asian elephants Elephas maximus. We carried out 1,977 faecal egg counts (FECs) across five years to estimate nematode loads for 324 hosts. Infection patterns followed an established age-infection curve, whereby calves (5 years) exhibited the highest FECs and adults (45 years) the lowest. However, males and females had similar FECs across their long lifespan, despite distinct differences in life-history strategy and clear sexual dimorphism. Additionally, although mothers invest two years in pregnancy and a further three to five years into lactation, nematode load did not vary with four different measures of female reproduction. Our results provide a much-needed insight into the host-parasite dynamics of a long-lived host; determining host-specific associations with infection in such systems is important for broadening our knowledge of parasite ecology and provides practical applications for wildlife medicine and management

Lighting during grow-out and Salmonella in broiler flocks

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Lighting is used during conventional broiler grow-out to modify bird behaviour to reach the goals of production and improve bird welfare. The protocols for lighting intensity vary. In a field study, we evaluated if the lighting practices impact the burden of <it>Salmonella </it>in broiler flocks.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Conventional grow-out flocks reared in the states of Alabama, Mississippi and Texas, USA in 2003 to 2006 were sampled 1 week before harvest (<it>n </it>= 58) and upon arrival for processing (<it>n </it>= 56) by collecting feathered carcass rinsate, crop and one cecum from each of 30 birds, and during processing by collecting rinsate of 30 carcasses at pre-chilling (<it>n </it>= 56) and post-chilling points (<it>n </it>= 54). Litter samples and drag swabs of litter were collected from the grow-out houses after bird harvest (<it>n </it>= 56). Lighting practices for these flocks were obtained with a questionnaire completed by the growers. Associations between the lighting practices and the burden of <it>Salmonella </it>in the flocks were tested while accounting for variation between the grow-out farms, their production complexes and companies.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Longer relative duration of reduced lights during the grow-out period was associated with reduced detection of <it>Salmonella </it>on the exterior of birds 1 week before harvest and on the broiler carcasses at the post-chilling point of processing. In addition, starting reduced lights for ≥18 hours per day later in the grow-out period was associated with decreased detection of <it>Salmonella </it>on the exterior of broilers arriving for processing and in the post-harvest drag swabs of litter from the grow-out house.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The results of this field study show that lighting practices implemented during broiler rearing can impact the burden of <it>Salmonella </it>in the flock. The underlying mechanisms are likely to be interactive.</p

The Impact of Voluntary Counselling and Testing Services on Sexual Behaviour Change and HIV Incidence: Observations from a Cohort Study in Rural Tanzania.

It is widely assumed that voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) services contribute to HIV prevention by motivating clients to reduce sexual risk-taking. However, findings from sub-Saharan Africa have been mixed, particularly among HIV-negative persons. We explored associations between VCT use and changes in sexual risk behaviours and HIV incidence using data from a community HIV cohort study in northwest Tanzania. Data on VCT use, sexual behaviour and HIV status were available from three HIV serological surveillance rounds undertaken in 2003-4 (Sero4), 2006-7 (Sero5) and 2010 (Sero6). We used multinomial logistic regression to assess changes in sexual risk behaviours between rounds, and Poisson regression to estimate HIV incidence. The analyses included 3,613 participants attending Sero4 and Sero5 (3,474 HIV-negative and 139 HIV-positive at earlier round) and 2,998 attending Sero5 and Sero6 (2,858 HIV-negative and 140 HIV-positive at earlier round). Among HIV-negative individuals VCT use was associated with reductions in the number of sexual partners in the last year (aRR Seros 4-5: 1.42, 95% CI 1.07-1.88; aRR Seros 5-6: 1.68, 95% CI 1.25-2.26) and in the likelihood of having a non-cohabiting partner in the last year (aRR Seros 4-5: 1.57, 95% CI 1.10-2.25; aRR Seros 5-6: 1.48, 95% CI 1.07-2.04) or a high-risk partner in the last year (aRR Seros 5-6 1.57, 95% CI 1.06-2.31). However, VCT was also associated with stopping using condoms with non-cohabiting partners between Seros 4-5 (aRR 4.88, 95% CI 1.39-17.16). There were no statistically significant associations between VCT use and changes in HIV incidence, nor changes in sexual behaviour among HIV-positive individuals, possibly due to small sample sizes. We found moderate associations between VCT use and reductions in some sexual risk behaviours among HIV-negative participants, but no impacts among HIV-positive individuals in the context of low overall VCT uptake. Furthermore, there were no significant changes in HIV incidence associated with VCT use, although declining background incidence and small sample sizes may have prevented us from detecting this. The impact of VCT services will ultimately depend upon rates of uptake, with further research required to better understand processes of behaviour change following VCT use