JEC Tank-to-Wheels Report v5: Heavy duty vehicles: Well-to-Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context

In this study typical figures for fuel consumption (FC), CO2 and CO2-equivalent emissions as well as energy consumption of current and future propulsion and fuel configurations for heavy duty vehicles (HDV) have been assessed. This report covers the Tank-to-Wheels (TTW) part of a comprehensive Well-to-Wheel (WTW) analysis. The parts of the study related to Well-to-Tank (WTT) analysis and to integrated WTW view are published in separate reports. ● The following two HDV configurations have been analysed: ● Rigid truck with 18 tons gross vehicle mass rating (GVMR) designed for use in regional delivery mission (“group 4 vehicle”) ● Tractor-semitrailer combination with 40 tons GVMR designed for use in long haul mission (“group 5 vehicle”) The analysed HDV configurations are either driven with a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) or an electrified propulsion system (xEV). ICE only configurations include the technologies: ● Direct Injection Compression Ignition (CI) ● Port Injection Positive Ignition (PI) ● LNG High Pressure Direct Injection Compression Ignition (HPDI) For CI engines the fuels Diesel B0, B7 and B100 (FAME) as well as DME, ED95, OME and Paraffinic Diesel were considered. For PI engines CNG and LNG were analysed. The electrified propulsion systems include: ● Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) ● Battery electric vehicle (BEV) ● Catenary electric vehicle (CEV) ● Hydrogen/Fuel cell (FCEV) All considered vehicle concepts have been analysed for the model years 2016 and 2025, whereby 2016 models are representing the state of the art on the European market for the individual application purpose. Vehicle specifications for 2025 are based on a technology assessment of future improvements. For xEV concepts the it is at the moment not possible to identify typical vehicle configurations as the these systems are currently a new technology under development for HDV. As a consequence xEV vehicle specifications and related results as elaborated in the present study shall been understood as examples for these new technologies. Simulation of vehicles which are driven by an ICE only have been performed with the software Vehicle Energy Consumption Calculation tool (VECTO), the tool which is also used for the CO2 certification of HDV in the EU. Electrified propulsion systems have been simulated with the model PHEM as these propulsion concepts are not covered in the current VECTO version. Figure 1 and Figure 2 give a summary on the results on transport specific figures (i.e. per tonne-kilometre) for energy consumption and TTW CO2-equivalent emissions. The main conclusions on the comparison of different propulsion systems drawn from these results are given in chapter 7 of this report.JRC.C.2-Energy Efficiency and Renewable

The Development of a Simulation Tool for Monitoring Heavy-Duty Vehicle CO2 Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Europe

Following its commitment to reduce CO2 emissions from road transport in Europe, the European Commission has launched the development of a new methodology for monitoring CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles (HDV). Due to the diversity and particular characteristics of the HDV sector it was decided that the core of the proposed methodology will be based on a combination of component testing and vehicle simulation. A detailed methodology for the measurement of each individual vehicle component of relevance and a corresponding vehicle simulation is being elaborated in close collaboration with the European HDV manufacturers, component suppliers and other stakeholders. Similar approaches have been already adopted in other major HDV markets such as the US, Japan and China. In order to lay the foundations for the future HDV CO2 monitoring and certification software application, a new vehicle simulation software was developed, Vehicle Energy Consumption calculation Tool (henceforward VECTO). VECTO aims to serve as a platform that will incorporate the findings of current research activities in the field of HDV fuel consumption simulation and serve as a pilot for future upgrades and developments of the software application to be included in the European regulation. Emphasis was put from the very beginning on features that are of importance to HDV in order to reflect realistically both the actual vehicle CO2 emissions during operation and the competitive advantages of various fuel/CO2 saving technologies of the vehicles. This paper describes the simulation tool, its key characteristics and summarizes the most important future updates that are under investigation. In addition a first validation of its performance against real world measurement data is presented. The tool was also benchmarked against three widely available commercial vehicle simulators. Results suggest good ability to reproduce tests but further developments are still necessary in order to accurately reflect the real world fuel consumption of modern HDVs.JRC.F.6-Energy systems evaluatio

Monitoring CO2 emissions from HDV in Europe – An Experimental Proof of Concept of the Proposed Methodological Approach

The European Commission in joint collaboration with Heavy Duty Vehicle manufactures, the Graz University of Technology and other consulting and research bodies has been preparing a new legislative framework for monitoring and reporting CO2 emissions from Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDVs) in Europe. In contrast to passenger cars and light commercial vehicles, for which monitoring is performed through chassis dyno measurements, and considering the diversity and particular characteristics of the HDV market, it was decided that the core of the proposed methodology should be based on a combination of component testing and vehicle simulation. Emphasis is put on accurately simulating the performance of different vehicle components and achieving realistic fuel consumption results. A proof of concept was launched aiming to test and prove that these targets are achievable. A series of experiments were conducted on 2 different trucks, a Daimler 40ton Euro VI, long haul delivery truck with semi-trailer and a DAF 18 ton Euro V rigid truck. Measurements were performed at the Joint Research Centre’s HDV chassis dyno labs and on the road. A vehicle simulator (Vehicle Energy Consumption Calculation Tool - VECTO) has been developed to be used for official monitoring purposes and the results of the measurements were used for its validation. As inputs the simulation based methodology considers test track measurement of driving resistances (eg air drag), determination of drivetrain losses (e.g. gearbox), determination of power demand of engine auxiliaries (eg. cooling fan) and other consumers (e.g. steering pump), measurement of the engine fuel consumption map as extension to the engine's type approval tests (as described in EURO VI legislation). CO2 emissions of the vehicle are then calculated using the aforementioned input data for predefined representative driving cycles and mission profiles. For the two Heavy Duty vehicles tested and simulated on the same test route, fuel consumption was calculated always within a ±3% range from the real world measurement, and in several cases even closer than that (in the order of ±1.5%). Given the variability of the actual measurement (σ = 2%), it is concluded that a future certification scheme can be based on vehicle simulation tools.JRC.F.8-Sustainable Transpor

An Experimental Methodology for Measuring of Aerodynamic Resistances of Heavy Duty Vehicles in the Framework of European CO2 Emissions Monitoring Scheme

Due to the diversity of Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV), the European CO2 and fuel consumption monitoring methodology for HDVs will be based on a combination of component testing and vehicle simulation. In this context, one of the key input parameters that need to be accurately defined for achieving a representative and accurate fuel consumption simulation is the vehicle's aerodynamic drag. A highly repeatable, accurate and sensitive measurement methodology was needed, in order to capture small differences in the aerodynamic characteristics of different vehicle bodies. A measurement methodology is proposed which is based on constant speed measurements on a test track, the use of torque measurement systems and wind speed measurement. In order to support the development and evaluation of the proposed approach, a series of experiments were conducted on 2 different trucks, a Daimler 40 ton truck with a semi-trailer and a DAF 18 ton rigid truck. Two different torque measurement systems (wheel rim torque sensors and half shaft torque sensors) were used for the measurements and two different vehicle tracking approaches were investigated (high precision GPS and opto-electronic barriers). Results were pooled and compared against results from similar measurements performed by the OEMs at their own proving grounds. The method was proven to be accurate. The analysis showed good repeatability and reproducibility characteristics and a good sensitivity of the method. Based on the findings it was decided that this measurement methodology is suitable and can be included in the European legislation.JRC.F.8-Sustainable Transpor

Development of a CO2 certification and monitoring methodology for Heavy Duty Vehicles – Proof of Concept report

The European Commission is preparing a strategy to address Heavy-Duty Vehicles (HDVs) CO2 emissions that, contrary to cars and vans CO2 emissions, are currently not regulated. Considering the current knowledge gap on HDV CO2 emissions, an important step appears to be the development of vehicle simulation, new testing methods and practices and other provisions for vehicle categorization and characterization. In order to investigate the plausibility of the aforementioned simulation-based approach an extensive experimental study was launched by the European Commission DG JRC and DG Climate Change, in collaboration with vehicle manufacturers (DAF, DAIMLER, IVECO) and external consultants (TU- Graz), also referred to as Proof of Concept study. Scope of this report is to summarize the first findings of the Proof of Concept activity and provide further insight with regard to future steps in the direction of the completion of the CO2 emissions monitoring and certification framework. As shown, simulation tools can reproduce both real world and chassis dyno performance of Heavy Duty vehicles with satisfactory accuracy. In this exercise and for the HDV categories tested, the simulated fuel consumption results were found always within a +-3.5% range compared to the real world measurement, and in most cases even closer (in the order of +-1.5%). Analysis of different simulation scenarios showed that the declaration method considered, although not finalised yet, can provide results that are representative of the real world performance of HDVs, provided that the appropriate input data are available. The accuracy of the simulation results was not equally high throughout the entire trips investigated, something that is attributed to lack of certain input data, the immaturity of the simulation methodology which is still being optimized and inherited model and measurement inaccuracies. Such deviations are expected to improve significantly in later versions of the methodology. Important effort is being put in the development of methods to generate input data. For the long haul, regional/delivery trucks and coaches the most important parameters are aerodynamic characteristics, rolling resistance, mass, engine map, gearbox map, axle efficiency and driver performance simulation. In the report a methodologies for deriving input parameters for aerodynamic and rolling resistances and engine maps were investigated and proven mature enough to support CO2 declaration. Further development and validation is necessary for the rest of the input parameters mentioned. For aerodynamic resistances the novel method tested provided results to good accuracy, presented high repeatability and good reproducibility and sensitivity characteristics. Although the declaration methodology in its present form has reached a satisfactory level regarding the ability to quantify CO2 emissions from specific categories of HDV, there are still issues of importance that should be addressed in the months to come through a possible validation phase and/or a broader pilot phase. Emphasis should be placed on expanding the pool of data available regarding vehicles and components, particularly for HDV categories not investigated in this report, finalize the details of existing input data calculation methodologies, derive default values for non-measurable/non standardized input, optimize the performance of the vehicle simulation software and align the declaration methodology with existing regulatory framework for HDVs.JRC.F.6-Energy systems evaluatio