Dropout rate during prolonged physical stress training in the military may be determined by haematological changes

A public health research paper on sustained physical training in the military leading to high drop-out rates amongst new recruits in the Zimbabwe National Army.Sustained physical training has profound effects on haematological adaptive changes and these may influence physical performance, the dropout rates and casualties in a military setting. Prompted by reports of increases in the number of dropouts during military training, the impact of haematological changes on dropout rates and physical performance was studied in 60 male Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) recruits during 60 days of military training at the Nyanga training camp. The training programme included, among other things, bush exercises in the rugged terrain of the Nyangani range of mountains. Blood for full blood count (FBC) were collected by venepuncture in a forearm vein in a seated position two weeks pre-training (day zero). Subsequent samples were collected at seven, 30 and 60 days. FBC analyses was carried out by Sysmex K800 (Kobe, Japan) and urine samples were analyzed for urobilinogen. The results showed significant decreases in the red blood cells (RBC) and haemoglobin (Hb) (P<0.05) and (P<0.04) on day seven and day 30 respectively when compared to day zero. The persistent increase in haematocrit throughout the 60 days suggested haemoconcentration and a fall in plasma volume (PV). When compared to pre-training, granulocytes were significantly higher on day 60 than on day 30 (P<0.004). Lymphocytes and eosinophils were lower on day seven (P<0.001) when compared to day zero and (P<0.04) and (P<0.013) when compared to day 30 and 60 respectively, suggesting that the subjects had a decreased protection against infection. However, lymphocytes were higher on day 60 than on day seven (P<0.01). This observed recovery in lymphocytes on day 60 when compared to day seven and 30, suggested that acclimatization and adaptation had occurred. Of the 60 subjects, 18 percent were hospitalized [four with pulmonary TB and a hypochromasia blood picture while three had bronchopneumonia and a raised neutrophil count]. The number of dropouts was 16 (27 percent) of the 60 subjects under study. Laboratory observations showed proteinuria, a shift to the left in the myeloid series, nucleated red blood cells, platelet clumps, macrocytosis and red cell fragments. These were associated with casualties, dropouts and poor physical performance. These results suggested that severe haematological changes might be associated with poor performance, high rates of casualties and dropouts. Therefore, monitoring the trends of haematological changes at regular intervals during stress training can minimize casualties and the rates of dropouts

Adaptive changes in HIV-1 subtype C proteins during early infection are driven by changes in HLA-associated immune pressure

It is unresolved whether recently transmitted human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) have genetic features that specifically favour their transmissibility. To identify potential "transmission signatures", we compared 20 full-length HIV-1 subtype C genomes from primary infections, with 66 sampled from ethnically and geographically matched individuals with chronic infections. Controlling for recombination and phylogenetic relatedness, we identified 39 sites at which amino acid frequency spectra differed significantly between groups. These sites were predominantly located within Env, Pol and Gag (14/39, 9/39 and 6/39 respectively) and were significantly clustered (33/39) within known immunoreactive peptides. Within 6 months of infection, we detected reversion-to-consensus mutations at 14 sites and potential CTL escape mutations at seven. Here we provide evidence that frequent reversion mutations probably allows the virus to recover replicative fitness which, together with immune escape driven by the HLA alleles of the new hosts, differentiate sequences from chronic infections from those sampled shortly after transmission

Diversity of Francisella Species in Environmental Samples from Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts

We determined whether Francisella spp. are present in water, sediment, and soil from an active tularemia natural focus on Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, during a multiyear outbreak of pneumonic tularemia. Environmental samples were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting Francisella species 16S rRNA gene and succinate dehydrogenase A (sdhA) sequences; evidence of the agent of tularemia was sought by amplification of Francisella tularensis-specific sequences for the insertion element ISFTu2, 17-kDa protein gene tul4, and the 43-kDa outer membrane protein gene fopA. Evidence of F. tularensis subsp. tularensis, the causative agent of the human infections in this outbreak, was not detected from environmental samples despite its active transmission among ticks and animals in the sampling site. Francisella philomiragia was frequently detected from a brackish-water pond using Francisella species PCR targets, and subsequently F. philomiragia was isolated from an individual brackish-water sample. Distinct Francisella sp. sequences that are closely related to F. tularensis and Francisella novicida were detected from samples collected from the brackish-water pond. We conclude that diverse Francisella spp. are present in the environment where human cases of pneumonic tularemia occur

Transmission of HIV-1 CTL escape variants provides HLA - mismatched recipients with a survival advantage.

One of the most important genetic factors known to affect the rate of disease progression in HIV-infected individuals is the genotype at the Class I Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) locus, which determines the HIV peptides targeted by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs). Individuals with HLA-B*57 or B*5801 alleles, for example, target functionally important parts of the Gag protein. Mutants that escape these CTL responses may have lower fitness than the wild-type and can be associated with slower disease progression. Transmission of the escape variant to individuals without these HLA alleles is associated with rapid reversion to wild-type. However, the question of whether infection with an escape mutant offers an advantage to newly infected hosts has not been addressed. Here we investigate the relationship between the genotypes of transmitted viruses and prognostic markers of disease progression and show that infection with HLA-B*57/B*5801 escape mutants is associated with lower viral load and higher CD4+ counts

Genital tract inflammation during early HIV-infection predicts higher plasma viral load set point in women.

Background. The biggest challenge in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) prevention in Africa is the high HIV-1 burden in young women. In macaques, proinflammatory cytokine production in the genital tract is necessary for target cell recruitment and establishment of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection following vaginal inoculation. The purpose of this study was to assess if genital inflammation during early HIV-1 infection predisposes women to rapid disease progression. Methods. Inflammatory cytokine concentrations were measured in cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) from 49 women 6, 17, 30, and 55 weeks after HIV-1 infection and from 22 of these women before infection. Associations between genital inflammation and viral load set point and blood CD4 cell counts 12 months after infection were investigated. Results. Elevated genital cytokine concentrations 6 and 17 weeks after HIV-1 infection were associated with higher viral load set points and, to a lesser extent, with CD4 depletion. CVL cytokine concentrations during early infection did not differ relative to preinfection but were elevated in women who had vaginal discharge, detectable HIV-1 RNA in their genital tracts, and lower blood CD4 counts. Conclusion. Genital inflammation during early HIV-1 infection was associated with higher viral load set point and CD4 depletion, which are markers of rapid disease progression. Strategies aimed at reducing genital inflammation during early HIV-1 infection may slow disease progression

Climate Change Impact and Adaptation of Agro-Pastoral Farmers in Awerial County, Lakes State of South Sudan

This study examined the impact of climate change and weather-related extremities on the livelihoods of agro-pastoral farmers to identify the climate change adaptation practices adopted by the climate-affected households in Awerial County of South Sudan. A mixed methods approach was utilised. 401 respondents were interviewed using individual questionnaires and focus group discussions. The study’s results showed that agro-pastoralists perceive climate change as occurring in the study location, as evidenced by perceived increases in temperature, rainfall variability, and increased frequency of floods and droughts. Climate change also impacts livelihoods, as can be seen from livestock losses, increased food insecurity, loss of inputs, deforestation, and diminished water for livestock and domestic purposes. In the face of climate change, agro-pastoral farmers adapt by planting trees, crop/livestock diversification, mixed farming, soil and water conservation, reduction in livestock numbers, adjustment of planting dates, irrigation, and application of fertilisers. However, adaptation to climate change by agro-pastoral farmers is constrained by limited access to credit, lack of skills/information and access to agriculture inputs/technologies. The extension message includes strengthening local early warning systems, livelihood diversification and promotion of climate-sensitive agricultural practices for agro-pastoralists.

Challenges in the supply chain of cabbage in Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa

The main objective of the study was to advance good supply chain management practices for cabbage through improved shelf life, safety and produce quality, with a view to improving the sustainable supply of cabbage to the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality. Twenty-nine (29) cabbage farmers were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The data obtained was analysed descriptively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software Version 22. Descriptive statistics identified the modes, means of variables, frequencies, and percentages. The results of the study showed that the majority respondents face cabbage losses due to poor management during transportation. Moreover, challenges experienced by the cabbage farmers included mould growth, poor transport services, poor temperature management, poor stock handling practices, and location of the farms in relation to the market. The findings further revealed that insect infestation in some cabbage consignments was also a contributing factor which led to a high rejection rate among the retailers. The researchers propose that extension advisers should train cabbage farmers to address the identified challenges and ensure a regular monitoring and evaluation process to ensure the success of farmers

Impact of Climate Change on Sustainable Pastoral Livelihoods in Loima Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya

Climate change and variability have adversely affected communities’ pastoral livelihoods in Kenya. The study aimed to investigate sustaining pastoral livelihoods in a changing climate in Loima Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya. A total of 59 pastoralists were interviewed using a questionnaire. The data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software Version 22. SPSS employed descriptive statistical techniques like frequencies, percentages, cross-tabulations and proportions, means, and standard deviation. Pie charts, graphs, figures, and tables were used to present the data analysis output. Climate has been observed to vary continuously by pastoralists. Climate hazards mostly reported were livestock diseases and the frequency of droughts. The findings also indicated that livestock keepers preferred to graze their livestock on mountains/hills. Pasture and water availability and security determine the pattern of livestock movement. Pastoralists adopted various strategies to cope with climatic changes. Some of these strategies included diverse utilisation of livestock products, controlled grazing, herd diversification, and labour distribution among household members. In conclusion, climatic change and variability effects on the livelihoods of the pastoralists are evident. However, they have diversified ways of adapting and coping with these catastrophes to sustain themselves. To avert the effects of climate change, Turkana agriculture extension officers should focus on value addition to livestock products, provision of livestock insurance schemes, veterinary services, and livestock disease surveillance. Furthermore,  agriculture extension needs to develop and enforce livestock policies and develop appropriate contingency plans. Among the policies recommended are- the management of grazing areas, regulations on migratory routes, and rules governing the use of water sources