Leaving the Devil You Know: Crime Victimization, US Deterrence Policy, and the Emigration Decision in Central America

Following a sharp increase in the number of border arrivals from the violence-torn countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras in the spring and summer of 2014, the United States quickly implemented a strategy designed to prevent such surges by enhancing its detention and deportation efforts. In this article, we examine the emigration decision for citizens living in the high-crime contexts of northern Central America. First, through analysis of survey data across Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, we explore the role crime victimization plays in leading residents of these countries to consider emigration. Next, using survey data collected across twelve municipalities in Honduras, we evaluate the extent to which knowledge of heightened US immigration deterrence efforts influenced respondents’ emigration decision. Though a vast majority of these respondents were aware of the stricter US immigration policy regime, this awareness had no effect on their consideration of emigration as a viable strategy

Leaving the Devil You Know: Crime Victimization, US Deterrence Policy, and the Emigration Decision in Central America

Following a sharp increase in the number of border arrivals from the violence-torn countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras in the spring and summer of 2014, the United States quickly implemented a strategy designed to prevent such surges by enhancing its detention and deportation efforts. In this article, we examine the emigration decision for citizens living in the high-crime contexts of northern Central America. First, through analysis of survey data across Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, we explore the role crime victimization plays in leading residents of these countries to consider emigration. Next, using survey data collected across twelve municipalities in Honduras, we evaluate the extent to which knowledge of heightened US immigration deterrence efforts influenced respondents’ emigration decision. Though a vast majority of these respondents were aware of the stricter US immigration policy regime, this awareness had no effect on their consideration of emigration as a viable strategy. En la primavera y verano de 2014, Estados Unidos implementó una estrategia diseñada para prevenir una nueva ola migratoria después de un aumento elevado en el número de personas provenientes de Guatemala, El Salvador, y Honduras, países marcados por la violencia tratando de cruzar la frontera entre México y Estados Unidos. Dicha estrategia estaba fundamentada en el endurecimiento de las medidas de detención y deportación. En este artículo examinamos los factores que conllevan a los ciudadanos que viven en el norte de Centroamérica en contextos de alta criminalidad a tomar la decisión de emigrar. Primero, por medio del análisis de datos de encuestas para los casos de Guatemala, El Salvador, y Honduras, examinamos el rol que juega la victimización por crimen en la intención de emigrar de los ciudadanos que viven en estos países. En un segundo paso, usando datos de una encuesta llevada a cabo en doce municipalidades en Honduras, evaluamos hasta qué punto el conocimiento sobre las medidas implementadas por los Estados Unidos para detener la inmigración influye en la decisión de emigrar de los ciudadanos que viven en estas municipalidades con altos índices de criminalidad. Los resultados en este caso muestran que, a pesar de que la gran mayoría de ciudadanos tiene conocimiento sobre el endurecimiento de la política migratoria estadounidense, éste no tiene ningún efecto en su intención de emigrar

5,5'-Azoxytetrazolates - a new nitrogen-rich dianion and its comparison to 5,5'-azotetrazolate

A modification of the synthesis of sodium 5,5'-azotetrazolate pentahydrate, described by Thiele in 1898, yields the unknown and unexpected corresponding 5N-oxido derivative sodium 5,5'-azoxybistetrazolate pentahydrate (Na(2)zTO center dot 5H(2)O, 1). Purification was achieved by recrystallization based on the better solubility of Na(2)zTO center dot 5H(2)O in water. Different nitrogen-rich salts, such as the diammonium (3), the dihydroxylammonium (4), the bis-diaminoguanidinium (5), the bis-triaminoguanidinium (6) and the diaminouronium salt (7), have been prepared using metathesis reactions starting from barium 5,5'azoxybistetrazolate pentahydrate (2) and ammonium, hydroxylammonium, diaminoguanidinium or diaminouronium sulfate and triaminoguanidinium chloride, respectively. The nitrogen rich azoxyderivatives 3-7 were characterized using NMR, IR and Raman spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and elemental analysis. Additionally the solid state structures of 3, 4, 5 and 7 were determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction. The heats of formation of 3 and 4 and their corresponding azo-tetrazolate derivatives were calculated by the atomization method based on CBS-4M enthalpies. With these values and the crystal densities, several detonation parameters such as the detonation velocity, detonation pressure and specific impulse were calculated (EXPLO5) and compared. The sensitivities towards shock (BAM drophammer), friction (BAM friction tester) and electrostatic discharge of the described compounds were determined

Some Observations on the Structure of TATB

The recent discovery of second-harmonic light generation (SHG) from 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) has renewed interest in both the crystallography and the identification of defect structures in this material. The accepted crystal structure is triclinic but centrosymmetric (P-1); SHG is not expected from materials of this symmetry. A wide variety of syntheses have been shown to produce SHG-positive materials, including an emulsion technique, two different recrystallization methods, and a variety of combined reaction - precipitation processes. In addition, two standard commercial powders have shown the property after annealing in the 300 C range. We have examined the structures of several of these powders using polarized light microscopy (PLM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). We find that SHG-positive materials typically contain crystals both more transparent and more strongly faceted (i.e. ''more perfect'') than weak-SHG ones and that the positive samples show stronger texture in their powder diffraction patterns. These results are compared with predictions from Cady's structure

Studies on Ca (II) binding to gamma-carboxyglutamic acid. Use of thermal decarboxylation to probe metal ion/gamma-carboxyglutamic acid interactions.

The thermal decarboxylation of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-L-gamma-carboxyglutamic acid alpha-methyl ester [Z)-L-Gla-OMe) has been studied. In the presence of increasing amounts of calcium or magnesium ions, lyophilized powders of (Z)-L-Gla-OMe exhibit a corresponding increase in thermal stability. Both magnesium and calcium form relatively tight, thermally stable complexes with (Z)-L-Gla-OMe at high metal ion concentrations. Differences between Ca(II) and Mg(II) binding are noted at low metal ion concentrations, where (Z)-L-Gla-OMe is in excess. Under these conditions, complex formation with Mg(II) apparently favors a 2:1 Gla-magnesium ion complex in which both Gla residues are unstable to thermal decarboxylation. Calcium ion complexes, however, are found to favor a 3:1 Gla-calcium ion complex in which 1 of the 3 Gla residues is thermally stable

So close, yet so far away? the effects of city size, density, and growth on local civic participation

Recent studies in the U.S. context have suggested that political participation is a function of the size and concentration of a city’s population. Most of this research focuses on the idea that there is an optimal size and concentration of population that favors active political participation in terms of a higher propensity to vote in local elections, contact local officials, and attend community meetings. The conventional argument suggests a negative relationship between city size and political participation that is mitigated to some extent by the deeper social interactions generated by increased population density. We extend this research by also investigating the influence of population growth on the broader concept of civic participation. Civic participation is a multidimensional concept that requires the use of a broad set of indicators. We expand the number of measures to gauge civic participation at the local level by including data on the formation of volunteer associations, volunteer fire brigades and not-for-profit organizations as well as voter turnout. We test the hypotheses derived from extant research using aggregate data collected from Portuguese cities and discuss the implications of our findings for the literature on local civic participatio

Total Synthesis of Paracaseolide A

The total synthesis of paracaseolide A, a valuable cell-cycle progression inhibitor, was accomplished in 8 steps from known compounds, with 6.6% overall yield. The synthetic strategy creates strong potential for diversification