A Cholinergic-Regulated Circuit Coordinates the Maintenance and Bi-Stable States of a Sensory-Motor Behavior during Caenorhabditis elegans Male Copulation

Penetration of a male copulatory organ into a suitable mate is a conserved and necessary behavioral step for most terrestrial matings; however, the detailed molecular and cellular mechanisms for this distinct social interaction have not been elucidated in any animal. During mating, the Caenorhabditis elegans male cloaca is maintained over the hermaphrodite's vulva as he attempts to insert his copulatory spicules. Rhythmic spicule thrusts cease when insertion is sensed. Circuit components consisting of sensory/motor neurons and sex muscles for these steps have been previously identified, but it was unclear how their outputs are integrated to generate a coordinated behavior pattern. Here, we show that cholinergic signaling between the cloacal sensory/motor neurons and the posterior sex muscles sustains genital contact between the sexes. Simultaneously, via gap junctions, signaling from these muscles is transmitted to the spicule muscles, thus coupling repeated spicule thrusts with vulval contact. To transit from rhythmic to sustained muscle contraction during penetration, the SPC sensory-motor neurons integrate the signal of spicule's position in the vulva with inputs from the hook and cloacal sensilla. The UNC-103 K+ channel maintains a high excitability threshold in the circuit, so that sustained spicule muscle contraction is not stimulated by fewer inputs. We demonstrate that coordination of sensory inputs and motor outputs used to initiate, maintain, self-monitor, and complete an innate behavior is accomplished via the coupling of a few circuit components

Using C. elegans to decipher the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental disorders

Prova tipográfica (uncorrected proof)Neurodevelopmental disorders such as epilepsy, intellectual disability (ID), and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) occur in over 2 % of the population, as the result of genetic mutations, environmental factors, or combination of both. In the last years, use of large-scale genomic techniques allowed important advances in the identification of genes/loci associated with these disorders. Nevertheless, following association of novel genes with a given disease, interpretation of findings is often difficult due to lack of information on gene function and effect of a given mutation in the corresponding protein. This brings the need to validate genetic associations from a functional perspective in model systems in a relatively fast but effective manner. In this context, the small nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, presents a good compromise between the simplicity of cell models and the complexity of rodent nervous systems. In this article, we review the features that make C. elegans a good model for the study of neurodevelopmental diseases. We discuss its nervous system architecture and function as well as the molecular basis of behaviors that seem important in the context of different neurodevelopmental disorders. We review methodologies used to assess memory, learning, and social behavior as well as susceptibility to seizures in this organism. We will also discuss technological progresses applied in C. elegans neurobiology research, such as use of microfluidics and optogenetic tools. Finally, we will present some interesting examples of the functional analysis of genes associated with human neurodevelopmental disorders and how we can move from genes to therapies using this simple model organism.The authors would like to acknowledge Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) (PTDC/SAU-GMG/112577/2009). AJR and CB are recipients of FCT fellowships: SFRH/BPD/33611/2009 and SFRH/BPD/74452/2010, respectively

Conservation of neural nicotinic acetylcholine receptors from Drosophila to vertebrate central nervous systems.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) are found both in vertebrate and insect central nervous systems. We have isolated a Drosophila gene by crosshybridization with a vertebrate probe. Structural conservation of domains of the deduced protein and of intron/exon boundaries indicate that the Drosophila gene encodes an nAChR alpha-like subunit (ALS). That the Drosophila gene product most resembles the neuronal set of vertebrate nAChRs alpha-subunits is also indicated by the failure of an ALS-beta-galactosidase fusion protein to bind alpha-bungarotoxin on blots in contrast to vertebrate endplate alpha-subunit constructions. The ALS encoding gene exceeds 54 kb in length and the transcript has a very long and unusual 5' leader. As we found previously for a gene whose product is also involved in cholinergic synapses, acetylcholinesterase, the leader encodes short open reading frames, which might be involved in translation control. We also note the presence of opa repeats in the gene, as has been found for various Drosophila genes expressed in the nervous system

Progesterone modulates a neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

The major brain nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is assembled from two subunits termed alpha 4 and n alpha 1. When expressed in Xenopus oocytes, these subunits reconstitute a functional acetylcholine receptor that is inhibited by progesterone levels similar to those found in serum. In this report, we show that the steroid interacts with a site located on the extracellular part of the protein, thus confirming that inhibition by progesterone is not due to a nonspecific perturbation of the membrane bilayer or to the activation of second messengers. Because inhibition by progesterone does not require the presence of agonist, is voltage-independent, and does not alter receptor desensitization, we conclude that the steroid is not an open channel blocker. In addition, we show that progesterone is not a competitive inhibitor but may interact with the acetylcholine binding site and that its effect is independent of the ionic permeability of the receptor

Early steps in the production of sensory neurons by the neurogenic placodes.

Neurogenic placodes are specialized regions of the embryonic ectoderm that generate the majority of the neurons of the cranial sensory ganglia. Here we have accurately determined the onset of neurogenesis in each of the placodes in the chick, and we have also analyzed the expression profiles of genes that are believed to be involved in determining the types of sensory neurons produced by each placode. Interestingly, we find that there is a major difference in the expression domains of neurogenin-1 and neurogenin-2 in the chick, when compared with those reported for the mouse. We do find, however, that Brn-3a and Phox-2a and Phox-2b which are also associated with the specification of neuronal type are expressed in the same domains in the chick as they are in the mouse. These results suggest that neurogenin-1 and neurogenin-2 are functionally interchangeable in neurogenic placodes. We have also found major differences between the ophthalmic and maxillomandibular trigeminal placodes, and while all of the other placodes generate mitotically active cells the ophthalmic trigeminal placode seems to throw off postmitotic neuronal cells