Gold-alkynyls in catalysis : Alkyne activation, gold cumulenes and nuclearity

The use of cationic gold(i) species in the activation of substrates containing CC bonds has become a valuable tool for synthetic chemists. Despite the seemingly simple label of 'alkyne activation', numerous patterns of reactivity and product structure are observed in systems employing related substrates and catalysts. The complications of mechanistic determination are compounded as the number of implicated gold(i) centres involved in catalysis increases and debate about the bonding in proposed intermediates clouds the number and importance of potential reaction pathways. This perspective aims to illustrate some of the principles underpinning gold-alkynyl interactions whilst highlighting some of the contentious areas in the field and offering some insight into other, often ignored, mechanistic possibilities based on recent findings

DFT Studies of Au(I) Catalysed Reactions : Anion Effects and Reaction Selectivity

Density functional theory (DFT) is a powerful tool that can aid in the exploration and development of synthetic chemistry, and its use is often applied in the chemistry of gold(I) catalysis. In this review, we discuss two different facets of these calculations – namely, the exploration and explanation of anion effects, and the regioselectivity and speciation of gold(I)-catalysed reactions. The research described herein clearly shows the importance of including the anion in DFT studies of Au(I)-catalysed reactions, especially when using low polarity solvents, or where hydrogen-bonding is prevalent. Additionally, we show that whilst using DFT to study the selectivity of reactions can be successful, benchmarking the computational results against experimental data is vitally important for ensuring that the model is accurately describing the observed results

"Back-to-Front" Indole Synthesis using Silver(I) Catalysis : Unexpected C-3 Pyrrole Activation Mode Supported by DFT

An efficient silver(I)-catalyzed method is reported for the synthesis of substituted indoles, most notably 5-hydroxy-derivatives, via π-acidic alkyne activation. Most methods for the preparation of indoles involve annulation of a benzene precursor, but the method reported herein is unusual in that pyrrole precursors are used. Density Functional Theory (DFT) studies suggest that these reactions proceed via initial activation of the pyrrole C-3 position before undergoing subsequent rearrangement, contradicting the conventional wisdom that pyrroles are more nucleophilic through C-2

Mapping Out the Role of σ-Silane Complexes in the Ruthenium-Catalyzed Hydrosilylation of Nitriles

A combined synthetic, mechanistic, and computational study is reported, which provides unique insight into the role of σ-silane complexes in the catalytic hydrosilylation of nitriles. A novel, highly efficient, highly active, and regioselective catalytic monohydrosilylation of aromatic nitriles with secondary silanes using a ruthenium dihydrogen catalyst is reported along with a novel mechanism for hydrosilylation of nitriles. Investigations into the mechanism of this transformation have revealed the influence of σ-Si-H complexes in fine-tuning the selectivity of this hydrosilylation reaction. Displacement of the dihydrogen ligand on the ruthenium precatalyst, ruthenium bis-(dihydrogen) complex [RuH2(η2-H2)2(PCy3)2], 1, by diphenylsilane leads to the formation of new ruthenium σ-Si-H complexes, [RuH2(η2-H2)(η2-HSiHPh2)(PCy3)2], 2, and [RuH2(η3-H2SiPh2)(PCy3)2], 3. Complex 3 reacts readily with benzonitrile leading to hydrosilylation of the nitrile and coordination of the silylimine formed to the ruthenium as a σ-H-Si-N-silylimine complex, [RuH2(η2-HSiPh2NCHPh)(PCy3)2] (4). This systematic investigation of this reactivity led to the discovery of the first direct evidence of an N-silylimine-coordinated ruthenium complex and its involvement in a catalytic hydrosilylation reaction. This led to the discovery of a catalytic protocol for the efficient and selective coupling of secondary silanes with a range of nitriles using 1 as the catalyst. It is proposed that complexes 3 and 4 are key intermediates on the catalytic reaction coordinate, which leads to hydrosilylation of the nitrile. This is supported by DFT calculations along with the observation that 3 and 4 are catalytically active. The Si-N bond formation was found to proceed via direct attack of the nitrile at the silicon atom in 3. Through carefully chosen structural studies and tests of the new ruthenium complexes, along with DFT calculations, the mechanism of the catalytic hydrosilylation of nitriles has been successfully explained

Ring expansion reactions of P=O-containing molecules

A series of ring expansion reactions of P=O-containing molecules have been developed for the synthesis of medium-sized ring cyclic phosphonate esters and phosphonamidates. The reactivity trends initially appear to be counter-intuitive, compared with more well established ring expansion reactions of lactam derivatives, but are explained by considering the differences in heteroatom bonding to P and C respectively

Observation of a frustrated nematic phase in amphiphilic, disc-like complexes of gold(III) containing hydrocarbon and semiperfluorocarbon terminal chains

The mesomorphism is reported of a discotic complex of gold(III) that is amphiphilic on account of the presence of both hydrocarbon and fluorocarbon chains. The all-hydrocarbon analogue of the complex shows only a columnar hexagonal phase between the melting and clearing points, whereas this new, amphiphilic example shows a nematic phase between a columnar rectangular phase and a columnar hexagonal phase. The nature and formation of the nematic phase are discussed and it is proposed to be a columnar nematic formed as a result of frustration driven by the amphiphilic nature of the complex

Bioactive properties of iron-containing carbon monoxide-releasing molecules

Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CO-RMs) are compounds capable of delivering controlled amounts of CO within a cellular environment. Ruthenium-based carbonyls [tricarbonyldichloro ruthenium(II) dimer and tricarbonylchloro-(glycinato)ruthenium(II)] and boronacorbonates (sodium boranocarbonate) have been shown to promote vasodilatory, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities in a variety of experimental models. Here, we extend our previous studies by showing that η-4-(4-bromo-6-methyl-2-pyrone)tricarbonyl iron (0) (CORM-F3), an irontricarbonyl complex that contains a 2-pyrone motif, liberates CO in vitro and exerts pharmacological actions that are typical of CO gas. Specifically, CORM-F3 caused vasorelaxation in isolated aortic rings and inhibited the inflammatory response (e.g., nitrite production) of RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated with endotoxin in a dose-dependent fashion. By

Insight into ortho-boronoaldehyde conjugation via a FRET-based reporter assay

Ortho-boronoaldehydes react with amine-based nucleophiles with dramatically increased rates and product stabilities, relative to unfunctionalised benzaldehydes, leading to exciting applications across biological and material chemistry. We have developed a novel Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based assay to provide key new insights into the reactivity of these boronoaldehydes, allowing us to track conjugation with unprecedented sensitivity and accuracy under standardised conditions. Our results highlight the key role played by reaction pH, buffer additives, and boronoaldehyde structure in controlling conjugation speed and stability, providing design criteria for further innovations and applications in the field

On the mercuration, palladation, transmetalation and direct auration of a C^N^C pincer ligand

The C^N^C ligand 2,6-bis(2,3-dialkoxyphenyl)pyridine forms dimercury and orthopalladated complexes, both of which may be transmetallated to gold(iii) complexes; the gold complexes may also be formed directly in a Rh(iii)-catalysed process, hence it is possible to circumvent the use of organomercury intermediates in the synthesis of this important class of compound

Synthesis of macrocyclic and medium-sized ring thiolactones via the ring expansion of lactams

A side chain insertion method for the ring expansion of lactams into macrocyclic thiolactones is reported, that can also be incorporated into Successive Ring Expansion (SuRE) sequences. The reactions are less thermodynamically favourable than the analogous lactam- and lactone-forming ring expansion processes (with this notion supported by DFT data), but nonetheless, three complementary protecting group strategies have been developed to enable this challenging transformation to be achieved