A fast and accurate energy source emulator for wireless sensor networks

The capability to either minimize energy consumption in battery-operated devices, or to adequately exploit energy harvesting from various ambient sources, is central to the development and engineering of energy-neutral wireless sensor networks. However, the design of effective networked embedded systems targeting unlimited lifetime poses several challenges at different architectural levels. In particular, the heterogeneity, the variability, and the unpredictability of many energy sources, combined to changes in energy required by powered devices, make it difficult to obtain reproducible testing conditions, thus prompting the need of novel solutions addressing these issues. This paper introduces a novel embedded hardware-software solution aimed at emulating a wide spectrum of energy sources usually exploited to power sensor networks motes. The proposed system consists of a modular architecture featuring small factor form, low power requirements, and limited cost. An extensive experimental characterization confirms the validity of the embedded emulator in terms of flexibility, accuracy, and latency while a case study about the emulation of a lithium battery shows that the hardware-software platform does not introduce any measurable reduction of the accuracy of the model. The presented solution represents therefore a convenient solution for testing large-scale testbeds under realistic energy supply scenarios for wireless sensor networks

Pharmacokinetic Modelling of Efavirenz, Atazanavir, Lamivudine and Tenofovir in the Female Genital Tract of HIV-Infected Pre-Menopausal Women

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: A previously published study of antiretroviral pharmacokinetics in the female genital tract of HIV-infected women demonstrated differing degrees of female genital tract penetration among antiretrovirals. These blood plasma (BP) and cervicovaginal fluid (CVF) data were co-modelled for four antiretrovirals with varying CVF exposures. METHODS: Six paired BP and CVF samples were collected over 24 h, and antiretroviral concentrations determined using validated liquid chromatography (LC) with UV detection or LC-mass spectrometry analytical methods. For each antiretroviral, a BP model was fit using Bayesian estimation (ADAPT5), followed by addition of a CVF model. The final model was chosen based on graphical and statistical output, and then non-linear mixed-effects modelling using S-ADAPT was performed. Population mean parameters and their variability are reported. Model-predicated area under the concentration-time curve during the dosing interval (AUC(τ)) and exposure ratios of CVF AUC(τ):BP AUC(τ) were calculated for each drug. RESULTS: The base model uses first-order absorption with a lag time, a two-compartment model, and a series of transit compartments that transfer the drug from BP to CVF. Protein-unbound drug transfers into CVF for efavirenz and atazanavir; total drug transfers for lamivudine and tenofovir. CVF follows a one-compartment model for efavirenz and atazanavir, and a two-compartment model for lamivudine and tenofovir. As expected, inter-individual variability was high. Model-predicted CVF AUC(τ):BP AUC(τ) ratios are consistent with published results. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first pharmacokinetic modelling of antiretroviral disposition in BP and CVF. These models will be further refined with tissue data, and used in clinical trials simulations to inform future studies of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis in women