Anatomical and physiological studies of the vascular, nervous and muscular tissues of the mammary glands

It is not necessary to reiterate in detail the gross blood and nerve supply to the mammary glands given in Section I, Part II. The glands extend along the ventral thorax and abdomen and receive a multiple blood and nerve supply in common with the other subcutaneous tissues.The fact that many cutaneous nerves of thoracic and lumbar !origin innervate the glands, stresses the difficulty of thorough ly denervating them for experimental purposes, without actual transplantation.The multiple blood supply is understandable in the case of such a widely dispersed tissue, but it may have additional significance for maintaining the blood flow under all conditions. ,For example, it has been shown that the anastomoses within the tissue are such that it is possible for blood to reach all parts from any one main source of supply. It is conceivable that in ,certain positions of the body some of the mammary vessels,which are very superficial, might be sufficiently compressed to reduce the blood flow through them. However the vascular anastomoses mean that it is very unlikely that this would affect the total flow through the tissue as a whole.The microscopical examination of the small sblood vessels shows that, whilst the lobes have a multiple blood supply, the individual lobules do not generally receive more than one arteriole and venule. The capillaries around the alveoli form part of a complete network confined to the individual lobules but also embracing the smallest milk ducts draining them. The larger ducts also have an encircling capillary net, which is supplied at intervals by arterioles and venules, and continues right up to the mouths of the ducts, when it joins that of the skin. The largest ducts and cisterns have in addition a second layer of vessels, formed by the supplying arterioles and venules.The arteriole-venular bridges of zweifach (1939), seen in some lobules and the arterio-venous anastomoses doubtfully recorded on some of the ducts, probably serve to maintain the overall blood flow through the tissues, whilst allowing greater control of the flow through small parts of it.The significance of the venous network in the teat is not clear. It was first thought by Furstenberg (1868), Riederer (1903) and _ubeli (1916) to form a cavernous erectile tissue in the cow and that it was concerned in the flow of milk. Purstenr berg for example, thought that a cow held up her milk by holding her breath and actually obliterating the teat lumen by venous turgescence, whilst Rubeli believed that the latter was produced by vasomotor nerves. As has been shown in Section VIII, Part I and in Section IV, Part II of this thesis, it is no longer thought that the holding up of milk is an active process, but that the "letting down" is. The teat vessels have received no mention in modern theories, neither have they in the recent studies of the erection of the teat and its behaviour during milking by Peeters, Massart, Oyeart and Coussens (1948). They have shown that the smooth muscle in the nipple undergoes rhythmical contractions when it is distended, and suggested that the compression of the veins at this time aids the return of the blood to the heart

Correlations between milk and plasma levels of amino and carboxylic acids in dairy cows.

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between the concentrations of 19 amino acids, glucose, and seven carboxylic acids in the blood and milk of dairy cows and their correlations with established markers of ketosis. To that end, blood plasma and milk specimens were collected throughout lactation in two breeds of dairy cows of different milk yield. Plasma concentrations of glucose, pyruvate, lactate, α-aminobutyrate, β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA), and most amino acids, except for glutamate and aspartate, were on average 9.9-fold higher than their respective milk levels. In contrast, glutamate, aspartate, and the Krebs cycle intermediates succinate, fumarate, malate, and citrate were on average 9.1-fold higher in milk than in plasma. For most metabolites, with the exception of BHBA and threonine, no significant correlations were observed between their levels in plasma and milk. Additionally, milk levels of acetone showed significant direct relationships with the glycine-to-alanine ratio and the BHBA concentration in plasma. The marked decline in plasma concentrations of glucose, pyruvate, lactate, and alanine in cows with plasma BHBA levels above the diagnostic cutoff point for subclinical ketosis suggests that these animals fail to meet their glucose demand and, as a consequence, rely increasingly on ketone bodies as a source of energy. The concomitant increase in plasma glycine may reflect not only the excessive depletion of protein reserves but also a potential deficiency of vitamin B6