High power high efficiency multiple-beam klystron design

This thesis investigated the design decisions and associated optimisation methods of a 1.3 GHz Multiple Beam Klystron (MBK) for use in the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC). In this regard refinements have been made both to the MBK design, and investigation and optimisation methods used. The high desired efficiency of 80% requires low perveance beams, to achieve the specification output power 20 beams are needed. The choice of cavity used in the interaction structure of a klystron has a large impact on its size and efficiency. To optimise this a number of possible cavity designs were produced and compared to confirm selection of the most appropriate. The fundamental mode (TM0, 1, 0) coaxial cavity was selected due to its superior R/Q of 130-210 W and suitability as a 2nd harmonic cavity. Although the dipole mode proved to be close in frequency to the operating mode (within ~ 50 MHz), raising concerns of stability issues in an MBK. A novel model was developed using standard wake field theory to investigate the effects of this mode the klystron’s stability. A strategy for shifting this mode using a coupled shifting gap was proposed and achieves a shift of 125 MHz, although the models findings suggest it is not a significant problem. Existing methods of calculating dipole and higher order modes proved time consuming thus impeded a fully investigation of stability issues. An extended method of moments model allows efficient calculation of monopole and higher order modes. The model’s basis functions are altered to represent a range of TM and TE modes with azimuthal variation, allowing their rapid and accurate calculation. Optimising the klystron interaction structure by hand to find a viable configuration revealed shortcomings in this standard approach, although the target efficiency was achieved. An algorithmic approach was deemed necessary to allow a full investigation within reasonable time limits. The field of evolutionary algorithms is presented and an evolutionary algorithm to automate the optimisation of klystron interaction structures was developed. A number of important related issues were dealt with and suitable interaction structures (optimised for efficiency, bandwidth, length and electron exit velocity) produced. Finally a design was proposed for both the input and output couplers which is inspired by a coupler used in a gyrotron. Unconventionally, the latter exits the tube axially avoiding the focusing solenoid, but excessive heating may preclude its use

Analytical and Numerical Simulation of Multipactor within a Helical Resonant Filter

Multipactor analysis of a helical resonant filter has been performed using CST Particle Studio and analytically using a 1-D particle tracking code, based on the Runge-Kutta-Nystrom method. A comparison of results is presented

Design and testing of a four rod crab cavity for High Luminosity LHC

A 4-rod deflecting structure is proposed as a possible crab cavity design for the LHC high luminosity upgrade. Crab cavities are required for the LHC luminosity upgrade to provide a greater bunch overlap in the presence of a crossing angle, but must fit in the existing limited space. The structure has two parallel sections consisting of two longitudinally opposing quarter-wave rods, where each rod has the opposite charge from each of its nearest neighbors. The structure is transversely compact because the frequency is dependent on the rod lengths rather than the cavity radius. Simulations were undertaken to investigate the effect of rod shape on surface fields, higher order multipole terms and induced wakefields in order to obtain the optimal rod shape. The simulation results presented show that the addition of focus electrodes or by shaping the rods the sextupole contribution of the cavity voltage can be negated; the sextupole contribution is 321.57 mTm/m2, Epeak=27.7 MV/m and Bpeak=63.9 mT at the design voltage of 3 MV. The damping requirements for the LHC are critical and suitable couplers to damp all modes but the operating mode are presented. The results of various testing cycles of the first SRF 4 rod prototype cavity are presented and show that the cavity has reached the required transverse voltage of 3 MV

SPRING: an RCT study of probiotics in the prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus in overweight and obese women

Background: Obesity is increasing in the child-bearing population as are the rates of gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is associated with higher rates of Cesarean Section for the mother and increased risks of macrosomia, higher body fat mass, respiratory distress and hypoglycemia for the infant. Prevention of gestational diabetes through life style intervention has proven to be difficult. A Finnish study showed that ingestion of specific probiotics altered the composition of the gut microbiome and thereby metabolism from early gestation and decreased rates of gestational diabetes in normal weight women. In SPRING (the Study of Probiotics IN the prevention of Gestational diabetes), the effectiveness of probiotics ingestion for the prevention of gestational diabetes will be assessed in overweight and obese women

Safety, immunogenicity, and reactogenicity of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccines given as fourth-dose boosters following two doses of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 or BNT162b2 and a third dose of BNT162b2 (COV-BOOST): a multicentre, blinded, phase 2, randomised trial

Background Some high-income countries have deployed fourth doses of COVID-19 vaccines, but the clinical need, effectiveness, timing, and dose of a fourth dose remain uncertain. We aimed to investigate the safety, reactogenicity, and immunogenicity of fourth-dose boosters against COVID-19.Methods The COV-BOOST trial is a multicentre, blinded, phase 2, randomised controlled trial of seven COVID-19 vaccines given as third-dose boosters at 18 sites in the UK. This sub-study enrolled participants who had received BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) as their third dose in COV-BOOST and randomly assigned them (1:1) to receive a fourth dose of either BNT162b2 (30 µg in 0·30 mL; full dose) or mRNA-1273 (Moderna; 50 µg in 0·25 mL; half dose) via intramuscular injection into the upper arm. The computer-generated randomisation list was created by the study statisticians with random block sizes of two or four. Participants and all study staff not delivering the vaccines were masked to treatment allocation. The coprimary outcomes were safety and reactogenicity, and immunogenicity (antispike protein IgG titres by ELISA and cellular immune response by ELISpot). We compared immunogenicity at 28 days after the third dose versus 14 days after the fourth dose and at day 0 versus day 14 relative to the fourth dose. Safety and reactogenicity were assessed in the per-protocol population, which comprised all participants who received a fourth-dose booster regardless of their SARS-CoV-2 serostatus. Immunogenicity was primarily analysed in a modified intention-to-treat population comprising seronegative participants who had received a fourth-dose booster and had available endpoint data. This trial is registered with ISRCTN, 73765130, and is ongoing.Findings Between Jan 11 and Jan 25, 2022, 166 participants were screened, randomly assigned, and received either full-dose BNT162b2 (n=83) or half-dose mRNA-1273 (n=83) as a fourth dose. The median age of these participants was 70·1 years (IQR 51·6–77·5) and 86 (52%) of 166 participants were female and 80 (48%) were male. The median interval between the third and fourth doses was 208·5 days (IQR 203·3–214·8). Pain was the most common local solicited adverse event and fatigue was the most common systemic solicited adverse event after BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273 booster doses. None of three serious adverse events reported after a fourth dose with BNT162b2 were related to the study vaccine. In the BNT162b2 group, geometric mean anti-spike protein IgG concentration at day 28 after the third dose was 23 325 ELISA laboratory units (ELU)/mL (95% CI 20 030–27 162), which increased to 37 460 ELU/mL (31 996–43 857) at day 14 after the fourth dose, representing a significant fold change (geometric mean 1·59, 95% CI 1·41–1·78). There was a significant increase in geometric mean anti-spike protein IgG concentration from 28 days after the third dose (25 317 ELU/mL, 95% CI 20 996–30 528) to 14 days after a fourth dose of mRNA-1273 (54 936 ELU/mL, 46 826–64 452), with a geometric mean fold change of 2·19 (1·90–2·52). The fold changes in anti-spike protein IgG titres from before (day 0) to after (day 14) the fourth dose were 12·19 (95% CI 10·37–14·32) and 15·90 (12·92–19·58) in the BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 groups, respectively. T-cell responses were also boosted after the fourth dose (eg, the fold changes for the wild-type variant from before to after the fourth dose were 7·32 [95% CI 3·24–16·54] in the BNT162b2 group and 6·22 [3·90–9·92] in the mRNA-1273 group).Interpretation Fourth-dose COVID-19 mRNA booster vaccines are well tolerated and boost cellular and humoral immunity. Peak responses after the fourth dose were similar to, and possibly better than, peak responses after the third dose

Multi-objective evolutionary optimisation of the geometry of a class of controlled wave energy converter.

Concerns over climate change and energy security help motivate research into wave energy converters (WEC). Two WEC topologies have shown particular promise and many proposed devices rely on these forms, namely the heaving buoy and the bottom hinged surging flap. It can be shown that to achieve resonance a heaving point absorber requires a diameter that is much larger than practical. By contrast, bottom hinged flaps are generally smaller, hence many hinged flap devices are non resonant. This paper proposes a hybrid of these two topologies, in the form of an off-set hinged flap. The exact form is determined using a novel Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithm. The latter has been developed by the authors to address difficult discontinuous optimisation problems like this. The device volume is minimised, whilst simultaneously maximising power capture under both active and passive control

Rapid calculation of the properties of klystron cavities

This paper shows how the properties of cylindrically symmetrical klystron cavities can be computed quickly and accurately using the method of moments. The method can be used to benchmark results obtained using computer codes based on the discretisation of the volume of the cavity