Role of the employment status and education of mothers in the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections in Mexican rural schoolchildren

<p><b>Background:</b> Intestinal parasitic infections are a public health problem in developing countries such as Mexico. As a result, two governmental programmes have been implemented: a) "National Deworming Campaign" and b) "Opportunities" aimed at maternal care. However, both programmes are developed separately and their impact is still unknown. We independently investigated whether a variety of socio-economic factors, including maternal education and employment levels, were associated with intestinal parasite infection in rural school children.</p> <p><b>Methods:</b> This cross-sectional study was conducted in 12 rural communities in two Mexican states. The study sites and populations were selected on the basis of the following traits: a) presence of activities by the national administration of albendazole, b) high rates of intestinal parasitism, c) little access to medical examination, and d) a population having less than 2,500 inhabitants. A total of 507 schoolchildren (mean age 8.2 years) were recruited and 1,521 stool samples collected (3 per child). Socio-economic information was obtained by an oral questionnaire. Regression modelling was used to determine the association of socio-economic indicators and intestinal parasitism.</p> <p><b>Results:</b> More than half of the schoolchildren showed poliparasitism (52%) and protozoan infections (65%). The prevalence of helminth infections was higher in children from Oaxaca (53%) than in those from Sinaloa (33%) (p < 0.0001). Giardia duodenalis and Hymenolepis nana showed a high prevalence in both states. Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and Entamoeba hystolitica/dispar showed low prevalence. Children from lower-income families and with unemployed and less educated mothers showed higher risk of intestinal parasitism (odds ratio (OR) 6.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6–22.6; OR 4.5, 95% CI 2.5–8.2; OR 3.3, 95% CI 1.5–7.4 respectively). Defecation in open areas was also a high risk factor for infection (OR 2.4, 95% CI 2.0–3.0).</p> <p><b>Conclusion:</b> Intestinal parasitism remains an important public health problem in Sinaloa (north-western Mexico) and Oaxaca (south-eastern Mexico). Lower income, defecation in open areas, employment status and a lower education level of mothers were the significant factors related to these infections. We conclude that mothers should be involved in health initiatives to control intestinal parasitism in Mexico.</p&gt

Helminths and HIV infection: epidemiological observations on immunological hypotheses

Parasitic helminths have co-evolved with the mammalian immune system. Current hypotheses suggest that immunological stimulation in the presence of helminths is balanced by immuno-regulation and by the broad spectrum of mechanisms possessed by helminths for countering the host immune response. The degree to which this balance is perfected, and the mechanisms by which this is achieved, vary between helminth species; we suggest that this is reflected not only in the degree of pathology induced by helminths but also in a variety of relationships with HIV infection and HIV disease. Available epidemiological data regarding interactions between helminths and HIV are largely observational; results are variable and generally inconclusive. Well designed, controlled intervention studies are required to provide definitive information on the species-specific nature of these interactions and on the advantages, disadvantages and optimal timing of de-worming in relation to HIV infection

Patterns and Risk Factors of Helminthiasis and Anemia in a Rural and a Peri-urban Community in Zanzibar, in the Context of Helminth Control Programs

In many parts of the developing world, parasitic worms and anemia are of considerable public health and economic importance. We studied the patterns and risk factors of parasitic worm infections in a rural and a peri-urban community on Zanzibar Island, Tanzania, in the context of national deworming programs. We invited 658 individuals aged between 5 and 100 years and examined their stool and urine for the presence of parasitic worm eggs. Additionally, we obtained a finger-prick blood sample to estimate the level of anemia and to assess for specific immune reactions against parasitic worm infections. We found that, despite large-scale deworming efforts in Zanzibar over the past 15 years, three-quarter of the rural participants and half of the peri-urban residents were infected with parasitic worms. Every second participant was anemic. Risk factors for a parasitic worm infection were age, sex, consumption of raw vegetables or salad, recent travel history, and socio-economic status. For a sustainable control of parasitic worm infections and prevention of anemia, access to safe and efficacious drugs, complemented with health education and improvements in water supply and adequate sanitation are necessary

Malaria vector research and control in Haiti: a systematic review

BACKGROUND: Haiti has a set a target of eliminating malaria by 2020. However, information on malaria vector research in Haiti is not well known. This paper presents results from a systematic review of the literature on malaria vector research, bionomics and control in Haiti. METHODS: A systematic search of literature published in French, Spanish and English languages was conducted in 2015 using Pubmed (MEDLINE), Google Scholar, EMBASE, JSTOR WHOLIS and Web of Science databases as well other grey literature sources such as USAID, and PAHO. The following search terms were used: malaria, Haiti, Anopheles, and vector control. RESULTS: A total of 132 references were identified with 40 high quality references deemed relevant and included in this review. Six references dealt with mosquito distribution, seven with larval mosquito ecology, 16 with adult mosquito ecology, three with entomological indicators of malaria transmission, eight with insecticide resistance, one with sero-epidemiology and 16 with vector control. In the last 15 years (2000–2015), there have only been four published papers and three-scientific meeting abstracts on entomology for malaria in Haiti. Overall, the general literature on malaria vector research in Haiti is limited and dated. DISCUSSION: Entomological information generated from past studies in Haiti will contribute to the development of strategies to achieve malaria elimination on Hispaniola. However it is of paramount importance that malaria vector research in Haiti is updated to inform decision-making for vector control strategies in support of malaria elimination

Human Angiostrongyliasis Outbreak in Dali, China

Angiostrongyliasis, caused by the rat lungworm Angiostrongylus cantonensis, is a potentially fatal food-borne disease. It is endemic in parts of Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, Australia, and the Caribbean. Outbreaks have become increasingly common in China due to the spread of efficient intermediate host snails, most notably Pomacea canaliculata. However, infections are difficult to detect since the disease has a rather long incubation period and few diagnostic clinical symptoms. Reliable diagnostic tests are not widely available. The described angiostrongyliasis epidemic in Dali, China lasted for eight months. Only 11 of a total of 33 suspected patients were clinically confirmed based on a set of diagnostic criteria. Our results demonstrate that the rapid and correct diagnosis of the index patient is crucial to adequately respond to an epidemic, and a set of standardized diagnostic procedures is needed to guide clinicians. Integrated control and management measures including health education, clinical guidelines and a hospital-based surveillance system, should be implemented in areas where snails are a popular food item

The International Limits and Population at Risk of Plasmodium vivax Transmission in 2009

Growing evidence shows that Plasmodium vivax malaria is clinically less benign than has been commonly believed. In addition, it is the most widely distributed species of human malaria and is likely to cause more illness in certain regions than the more extensively studied P. falciparum malaria. Understanding where P. vivax transmission exists and measuring the number of people who live at risk of infection is a fundamental first step to estimating the global disease toll. The aim of this paper is to generate a reliable map of the worldwide distribution of this parasite and to provide an estimate of how many people are exposed to probable infection. A geographical information system was used to map data on the presence of P. vivax infection and spatial information on climatic conditions that impede transmission (low ambient temperature and extremely arid environments) in order to delineate areas where transmission was unlikely to take place. This map was combined with population distribution data to estimate how many people live in these areas and are, therefore, exposed to risk of infection by P. vivax malaria. The results show that 2.85 billion people were exposed to some level of risk of transmission in 2009