Benthic megafauna assemblage change over three decades in the abyss: Variations from species to functional groups

Megafaunal seafloor assemblages on the Monterey Fan in the NE Pacific (Station M, 4000 m depth) were studied between 2006–2018 using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) as part of a continuing time-series study that began in 1989. Since 2006 we identified nearly 120,000 individual animals representing over 142 morphospecies, and observed continuous changes in the megafaunal assemblage. This study, which tracked variation in observed morphospecies over a 13-year period, is one of the most detailed long-term records of megafaunal change for abyssal depths. Our investigation shows that new variations continued to emerge, reinforcing the concept that the deep-sea is dynamic over short time scales, rather than static over long periods. Some species were uncommon, but later observed in high numbers, then decreased to very low or undetectable levels (e.g. Elpidia sp. A), while others (e.g. Psychropotes longicauda) exhibited a relatively persistent presence with less fluctuation in abundance. Decreasing total echinoderm density from 2013–2018 did not correspond with the continued occurrence of large episodic POC flux events between 2016–2018. This may be attributed to the quality of food supply arriving at the seafloor and the varied ability of organisms to utilize it. Long-term tracking (30 years) of 10 specific epibenthic echinoderm species originally quantified from camera-sled images shows a pattern of assemblage structure, perhaps returning toward the composition observed in the 1990s and early 2000s. Many questions remain as to how this abyssal site and others will change with continued, and potentially increasing, anthropogenic change in the upper ocean. For example, the marine heat anomaly known as the ‘Warm Blob’ may have influenced major ecological processes at the abyssal seafloor in terms of morphospecies and functional group composition due to changes in POC flux. The degree of dynamism continues to indicate that ad hoc or short-term investigations provide a limited perspective for assessing community structure in conservation or resource exploitation impact assessment studies in the deep sea

Carbon cycling in the deep eastern North Pacific benthic food web: Investigating the effect of organic carbon input

The deep ocean benthic environment plays a role in long-term carbon sequestration. Understanding carbon cycling in the deep ocean floor is critical to evaluate the impact of changing climate on the oceanic systems. Linear inverse modeling was used to quantify carbon transfer between compartments in the benthic food web at a long time-series study site in the abyssal northeastern Pacific (Station M). Linear inverse food web models were constructed for three separate years in the time-series when particulate organic carbon (POC) flux was relatively high (1990: 0.63 mean mmol C m?2 d?1), intermediate (1995: 0.24) and low (1996: 0.12). Carbon cycling in all years was dominated by the flows involved in the microbial loop; dissolved organic carbon uptake by microbes (0.80–0.95 mean mmol C m?2 d?1), microbial respiration (0.52–0.61), microbial biomass dissolution (0.09–0.18) and the dissolution of refractory detritus (0.46–0.65). Moreover, the magnitude of carbon flows involved in the microbial loop changed in relation to POC input, with a decline in contribution during the high POC influxes, such as those recently experienced at Station M. Results indicate that during high POC episodic pulses the role of faunal mediated carbon cycling would increase. Semi-labile detritus dominates benthic faunal diets and the role of labile detritus declined with increased total POC input. Linear inverse modeling represents an effective framework to analyze high-resolution time-series data and demonstrate the impact of climate change on the deep ocean carbon cycle in a coastal upwelling system

Rapid changes and long-term cycles in the benthic megafaunal community observed over 24years in the abyssal northeast Pacific

The abyssal seafloor community in the NE Pacific (Station M, ?4000 m depth) was studied between 2006 and 2012 using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) as part of a continuing 24-year time-series study. New patterns continue to emerge showing that the deep-sea can be dynamic on short time scales, rather than static over long periods. In just over 2 years the community shifted from a sessile, suspension-feeding, sponge-dominated community to a mobile, detritus-feeding, sea cucumber-dominated assemblage. In 2006 megafaunal diversity (Simpson’s Diversity Index, SDI) was high, yet the community was depauperate in terms of density compared to later periods. Over an 18-month period beginning in spring 2011, the densities of mobile organisms increased by nearly an order of magnitude while diversity decreased below 2006 levels. In late 2012 four sea cucumbers (two Peniagone spp., Elpidia sp. A, and Scotoplanes globosa) were at the highest densities recorded since investigations began at Station M in 1989. For a group of 10 echinoderms investigated over the entire study period, we saw evidence of a long-term cycle spanning 2 decades. These changes can be tied to a variable food supply originating in shallow water. Large variations over decadal-scales indicate that remote abyssal communities are dynamic and likely subject to impacts from anthropogenic changes like ocean warming, acidification, and pollution manifested in the upper ocean. The degree of dynamism indicates that one-time or short-term investigations are not sufficient for assessing biological community structure in conservation or exploitation studies in the deep sea

A comparison of megafaunal communities in five submarine canyons off Southern California, USA

Remotely operated vehicle surveys were conducted in five submarine canyons off Southern California during research expeditions in 2005 and 2010. Video transects from a range of depths were analysed to produce presence/absence data of megafauna for each site. A comparison of benthic communities at various depths, locales, and canyons was performed. No significant difference was found between canyon communities based on the level of sediment transport activity, however this may be due to the unbalanced sampling of this opportunistic study. There was significant variation in biological community composition and abundance amongst water depths. These depth-related trends are in agreement with the findings of the previous studies and are likely tied to depth-correlated variables such as hydrostatic pressure, temperature, salinity, and oxygen concentration. Species richness was found to initially increase with depth before declining rapidly at the mouths of the studied canyons. Low oxygen levels in the Santa Monica Basin, into which four of the surveyed canyons empty, may explain this

Abyssal demersal fishes recorded at station M (34°50′N, 123° 00′W, 4100 m depth) in the northeast Pacific Ocean: An annotated check list and synthesis

The demersal ichthyofauna at the abyssal Station M at 4100 m depth in the NE Pacific Ocean (34°50′N, 123° 00′W) has been sampled from 1989 onwards using a combination of techniques; baited traps, long lines, otter trawls, towed camera sledge, remotely operated vehicles (ROV), human occupied vehicle (Alvin), benthic long-term time lapse camera and baited camera landers. The fish fauna is dominated by two species of macrourid Coryphaenoides armatus and C. yaquinae. Other species present are Bathysaurus mollis (Bathysauridae), Coryphaenoides leptolepis (Macrouridae), Bassozetus nasus, Spectrunculus grandis (Ophidiidae), three species of Liparidae, including Genioliparis ferox and a Zoarcid (Pachycara sp.). Evidence of deposition of egg masses by snail fishes, liparids on oceanographic equipment is discussed

An evaluation of deep-sea benthic megafauna length measurements obtained with laser and stereo camera methods

The 25 year time-series collected at Station M, ~4000 m on the Monterey Deep-sea Fan, has substantially improved understanding of the role of the deep-ocean benthic environment in the global carbon cycle. However, the role of deep-ocean benthic megafauna in carbon bioturbation, remineralization and sequestration is relatively unknown. It is important to gather both accurate and precise measurements of megafaunal community abundance, size distribution and biomass to further define their role in deep-sea carbon cycling and possible sequestration. This study describes initial results from a stereo camera system attached to a remotely operated vehicle and analyzed using the EventMeasure photogrammetric measurement software to estimate the density, length and biomass of 10 species of mobile epibenthic megafauna. Stereo length estimates were compared to those from a single video camera system equipped with sizing lasers and analyzed using the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute’s Video Annotation and Reference System. Both camera systems and software were capable of high measurement accuracy and precision (<±1 mm measurement error and precision). However, the oblique angle of the single video camera caused the spatial scale of the image perspective to change with distance from the camera, resulting in error when measurements were not parallel or vertical to two horizontal-oriented scaling lasers. Analysis showed that the stereo system recorded longer lengths and higher biomass estimates than the single video camera system for the majority of the 10 megafauna species studied. The stereo image analysis process took substantially longer than the video analysis and the value of the EventMeasure software tool would be improved with developments in analysis automation. The stereo system is less influenced by object orientation and height, and is potentially a useful tool to be mounted on an autonomous underwater vehicle and for measuring deep-sea pelagic animals where the use of lasers is not feasible

Histologic Examination of a Sea Pig (Scotoplanes sp.) Using Bright Field Light Microscopy

Sea pigs (Scotoplanes spp.) are deep-sea dwelling sea cucumbers of the phylum Echinodermata, class Holothuroidea, and order Elasipodida. Few reports are available on the microscopic anatomy of these deep-sea animals. This study describes the histologic findings of two, wild, male and female Scotoplanes sp. collected from Monterey Bay, California. Microscopic findings were similar to other holothuroids, with a few notable exceptions. Sea pigs were bilaterally symmetrical with six pairs of greatly enlarged tube feet arising from the lateral body wall and oriented ventrally for walking. Neither a rete mirabile nor respiratory tree was identified, and the large tube feet may function in respiration. Dorsal papillae protrude from the bivium and are histologically similar to tube feet with a large, muscular water vascular canal in the center. There were 10 buccal tentacles, the epidermis of which was highly folded. Only a single gonad was present in each animal; both male and female had histologic evidence of active gametogenesis. In the male, a presumed protozoal cyst was identified in the aboral intestinal mucosa, and was histologically similar to previous reports of coccidians. This work provides control histology for future investigations of sea pigs and related animals using bright field microscopy

Spatial segregation in eastern North Pacific skate assemblages.

Skates (Rajiformes: Rajoidei) are common mesopredators in marine benthic communities. The spatial associations of individual species and the structure of assemblages are of considerable importance for effective monitoring and management of exploited skate populations. This study investigated the spatial associations of eastern North Pacific (ENP) skates in continental shelf and upper continental slope waters of two regions: central California and the western Gulf of Alaska. Long-term survey data were analyzed using GIS/spatial analysis techniques and regression models to determine distribution (by depth, temperature, and latitude/longitude) and relative abundance of the dominant species in each region. Submersible video data were incorporated for California to facilitate habitat association analysis. We addressed three main questions: 1) Are there regions of differential importance to skates?, 2) Are ENP skate assemblages spatially segregated?, and 3) When skates co-occur, do they differ in size? Skate populations were highly clustered in both regions, on scales of 10s of kilometers; however, high-density regions (i.e., hot spots) were segregated among species. Skate densities and frequencies of occurrence were substantially lower in Alaska as compared to California. Although skates are generally found on soft sediment habitats, Raja rhina exhibited the strongest association with mixed substrates, and R. stellulata catches were greatest on rocky reefs. Size segregation was evident in regions where species overlapped substantially in geographic and depth distribution (e.g., R. rhina and Bathyraja kincaidii off California; B. aleutica and B. interrupta in the Gulf of Alaska). Spatial niche differentiation in skates appears to be more pronounced than previously reported

Hot and cold spot maps for <i>Beringraja binoculata</i> and <i>Raja rhina</i>.

<p>Getis-GI Hot Spot Analysis Z-score plots of catch-per-unit-effort (kg/km) for the hardnose skates, <i>Beringraja binoculata</i> (A) and <i>Raja rhina</i> (B), in the western Gulf of Alaska, as calculated from NMFS–AFSC trawl surveys conducted during 1999–2011.</p