CO2 Emission Factors for Coals

Za izračunavanje emisije ugljikova dioksida zbog izgaranja ugljena, emisijski faktor CO2 važan je ulazni parametar. Referentni emisijski faktori prema Uputama Međuvladinog tijela za klimatske promjene iz 2006. godine (engl. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC) specificirani su prema stupnju pougljenja (coal rank), ali se pri izradi nacionalnog izvješća o stakleničkim plinovima preporučuje primjena nacionalnih emisijskih faktora. Sadržaj ugljika najvažnije je svojstvo ugljena i pokazatelj je stupnja pougljenja (karbonizacije). Međutim mnoga svojstva ugljena vrlo su specifična (npr. sadržaj sumpora, pepela, vlage i macerala) te emisijski faktori CO2 ugljena ne ovise samo o stupnju pougljenja već i o njegovu geografskom porijeklu. U preliminarnom istraživanju, temeljem podataka dobivenih analizom goriva, izračunati su emisijski faktori CO2 za ugljene i treset s područja Livna, BiH: 147,9 t TJ−1 za treset, 109,5 t TJ−1 za lignit i 98,7 t TJ−1 za smeđi ugljen, što odgovara sljedećim donjim ogrjevnim vrijednostima (Hd): 3,6 MJ kg−1, 11,5MJ kg−1 i 20,6 MJ kg−1. Razlika u ogrjevnoj vrijednosti može se djelomično objasniti različitim udjelom ukupne vlage u ispitivanim uzorcima. Usporedba izračunatih emisijskih faktora s referentnim vrijednostima, pokazala je najveća odstupanja kod treseta (39,5 %), potom kod lignita (8,2 %) i smeđeg ugljena (4,3 %).Emission factors are used in greenhouse gas inventories to estimate emissions from coal combustion. In the absence of direct measures, emissions factors are frequently used as a quick, low cost way to estimate emissions values. Coal combustion has been a major contributor to the CO2 flux into the atmosphere. Nearly all of the fuel carbon (99 %) in coal is converted to CO2 during the combustion process. The carbon content is the most important coal parameter which is the measure of the degree of coalification (coal rank). Coalification is the alteration of vegetation to form peat, succeeded by the transformation of peat through lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous to anthracite coal. During the geochemical or metamorphic stage, the progressive changes that occur within the coal are an increase in the carbon content and a decrease in the hydrogen and oxygen content resulting in a loss of volatiles. Heterogeneous composition of coal causes variation in CO2 emission from different coals. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has produced guidelines on how to produce emission inventories which includes emission factors. Although 2006 IPCC Guidelines provided the default values specified according to the rank of the coal, the application of country-specific emission factors was recommended when estimating the national greenhouse gas emissions. This paper discusses the differences between country-specific emission factors and default IPCC CO2 emission factors, EF(CO2), for coals. Also, this study estimated EF(CO2) for two different types of coals and peat from B&H, on the basis fuel analyses. Carbon emission factors for coal mainly depend on the carbon content of the fuel and vary with both rank and geographic origin, which supports the idea of provincial variation of carbon emission factors. Also, various other factors, such as content of sulphur, minerals and macerals play an important role and influence EF(CO2) from coal. Carbonate minerals (calcite and siderite) directly contribute CO2 when they decompose during coal combustion. Variations in the maceral content can also influence CO2 emissions; high inertinite contents increase CO2 emissions. Sulphur in coal reduces EF(CO2). Fuel analysis is very important when estimating greenhouse gas emissions and emission factors. In this preliminary study, based on the results of the fuel analysis, CO2 emission factors for coals and peat from Livno, B&H have been calculated. EF(CO2) is defined as the amount of carbon dioxide emission per unit net calorific values of the fuel. Net calorific value (the lower heating value) corresponds to the heat produced by combustion where total water in the combustion products exists as water vapour. The EF(CO2) obtained for sub-bituminous coal, lignite and peat were: 98.7, 109.5, and 147.9 t TJ−1, respectively, which correspond to the following net calorific values: 20.6, 11.5 and 3.6 MJ kg−1. The heating value is generally known to increase with the increase in carbon content (this parameter is connected with the degree of coalification, coal age). The other indispensable parameters are hydrogen, which has a positive effect on the net calorific value, and oxygen and water which impact the net calorific value negatively. The differences in net calorific values can be explained in part by the difference of total moisture content among the different fuel types. The CO2 emission factors calculated in this study were compared with those of IPCC. A significant difference was observed for peat (39.5 %), followed by lignite (8.2 %) and sub-bituminous coal (4.3 %)

РОЗВИТОК ЕМПАТІЙНИХ ЗДІБНОСТЕЙ У СТУДЕНТІВ-МЕДИКІВ

The aim of the work – to study the problem of empathy among medical students, cognitive and emotional direction of empathy. The main body. The study of empathy issues in psychology is of rather long history. The empathy is defined as the human ability to respond emotionally to the worries of another person, animal or any anthropomorphized subject; as an exceptionally emotional phenomenon representing the process of mutual worries – sympathy – internal perception; as realization of emotional state of another person, penetration into the worries of another man; as an ability to touch to emotional life of another person sharing his/her worries; as “transformation” into the position of another man, ability to fell in his/her position; as a sensation reproducing moral unity. In order to study possible relations between empathy and experiencing fault and shame, the empirical research was conducted involving 37 fourth-year students from Bukovyna State Medical University applying the methods of V. V. Boiko to diagnose empathy and J. Tangney to assess feelings of fault and shame. Conclusion. The necessity to investigate the level of empathy abilities of medical students and their continuous development is stipulated by the time as an important constituent of high professional and humane qualities of a modern doctor.Мета роботи – вивчити проблему емпатійності у студентів-медиків, когнітивний та емотивний напрямки емпатій. Основна частина. Вивчення проблеми емпатії в психології має досить тривалу історію. Емпатія визначається як здатність людини емоційно відгукуватися на переживання іншої людини, тварини чи будь-якого антропоморфізованого предмета; як суто емоційний феномен, що репрезентує процес співпереживання – співчуття – внутрішнього прийняття; як осягнення емоційного стану  іншого, як проникнення в переживання іншої людини; як здатність прилучатися до емоційного життя іншого, розділяючи його переживання; як “учуття” в позицію іншого, вміння поставити себе на його місце; як почуття, що передає духовне єднання. Ми провели емпіричне дослідження, у якому вибіркою стали 37 студентів ІV курсу Чернівецького медичного університету і використовувалися методики В. В. Бойка для діагностики емпатії та Дж. Тангней для вимірювання почуття провини та сорому. Здатність до емпатії разом з розвитком таких базових і загальнолюдських моральних за характером почуттів, як провини та сорому, що визначають етичну спрямованість самосвідомості особистості, є професійно важливими якостями для представників допомагаючих професій, зокрема медика. Висновок. Велінням часу є необхідність дослідження рівня емпатійних здібностей студентів-медиків та їх постійний розвиток як важлива складова частина високих професійних і медичних якостей сучасного лікаря

Association of MAPT haplotype‐tagging polymorphisms with cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease: A preliminary study in a Croatian cohort

Introduction: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the world leading cause of dementia. Early detection of AD is essential for faster and more efficacious usage of therapeutics and preventive measures. Even though it is well known that one ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E gene increases the risk for sporadic AD five times, and that two ε4 alleles increase the risk 20 times, reliable genetic markers for AD are not yet available. Previous studies have shown that microtubule‐associated protein tau (MAPT) gene polymorphisms could be associated with increased risk for AD. Methods: The present study included 113 AD patients and 53 patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), as well as nine healthy controls (HC) and 53 patients with other primary causes of dementia. The study assessed whether six MAPT haplotype‐tagging polymorphisms (rs1467967, rs242557, rs3785883, rs2471738, del–In9, and rs7521) and MAPT haplotypes are associated with AD pathology, as measured by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarkers amyloid β1–42 (Aβ1–42), total tau (t‐tau), tau phosphorylated at epitopes 181 (p‐tau181), 199 (p‐tau199), and 231 (p‐tau231), and visinin‐like protein 1 (VILIP‐1). Results: Significant increases in t‐tau and p‐tau CSF levels were found in patients with AG and AA MAPT rs1467967 genotype, CC MAPT rs2471738 genotype and in patients with H1H2 or H2H2 MAPT haplotype. Conclusions: These results indicate that MAPT haplotype‐tagging polymorphisms and MAPT haplotypes should be further tested as potential genetic biomarkers of AD

The influence of combined drainage on yield of crops in the continental part of Croatia

Vytauto Didžiojo universitetasŽemės ūkio akademij