Does parenting affect children\u27s eating and weight status?

Background: Worldwide, the prevalence of obesity among children has increased dramatically. Although the etiology of childhood obesity is multifactorial, to date, most preventive interventions have focused on school-aged children in school settings and have met with limited success. In this review, we focus on another set of influences that impact the development of children\u27s eating and weight status: parenting and feeding styles and practices. Our review has two aims: (1) to assess the extent to which current evidence supports the hypothesis that parenting, via its effects on children\u27s eating, is causally implicated in childhood obesity; and (2) to identify a set of promising strategies that target aspects of parenting, which can be further evaluated as possible components in childhood obesity prevention. Methods: A literature review was conducted between October 2006 and January 2007. Studies published before January 2007 that assessed the association between some combination of parenting, child eating and child weight variables were included. Results: A total of 66 articles met the inclusion criteria. The preponderance of these studies focused on the association between parenting and child eating. Although there was substantial experimental evidence for the influence of parenting practices, such as pressure, restriction, modeling and availability, on child eating, the majority of the evidence for the association between parenting and child weight, or the mediation of this association by child eating, was cross-sectional. Conclusion: To date, there is substantial causal evidence that parenting affects child eating and there is much correlational evidence that child eating and weight influence parenting. There are few studies, however, that have used appropriate meditational designs to provide causal evidence for the indirect effect of parenting on weight status via effects on child eating. A new approach is suggested for evaluating the effectiveness of intervention components and creating optimized intervention programs using a multiphase research design. Adoption of approaches such as the Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) is necessary to provide the mechanistic evidence-base needed for the design and implementation of effective childhood obesity prevention programs. 1. Introductio

Dieting, Restraint, and Disinhibition Predict Women\u27s Weight Change over 6 y

Background: Although disinhibited eating is positively associated with higher weight in women, it is not known whether restrained eating and dieting moderate the influence of disinhibited eating on weight change. Objective: The objective was to investigate over 6 y the interactive effects of restrained and disinhibited eating and self-reported dieting to lose weight as predictors of weight gain in women. Design: Data were collected from non-Hispanic white women (n = 163) every 2 y. Height and weight were measured in triplicate. Dietary restraint and disinhibition were assessed by using the Eating Inventory. Participants were also asked if they were “currently dieting to lose weight.” Multilevel modeling was used to examine change in weight as a function of time-invariant and time-varying predictors, including dietary restraint, dietary disinhibition, and self-reported dieting. Results: After covariates were adjusted for, growth curve models showed that within-person increases in restraint over time were associated with concurrent decreases in weight and that higher levels of restraint moderated the positive association between dietary disinhibition and weight. Women who reported dieting at study entry were heavier at study entry and gained more weight over time than did nondieters. Finally, a significant interaction between restraint, disinhibition, and dieting showed that restraint moderated the effect of disinhibition on weight differently in nondieters than in dieters. Conclusions: Increasing levels of dietary restraint may be beneficial in moderating weight by attenuating the positive association between disinhibition and weight in dieting women. An understanding of weight and weight change requires examination of the interactive effects of restraint, disinhibition, and dieting

Dieting, Restraint, and Disinhibition Predict Women\u27s Weight Change over 6 y

Background: Although disinhibited eating is positively associated with higher weight in women, it is not known whether restrained eating and dieting moderate the influence of disinhibited eating on weight change. Objective: The objective was to investigate over 6 y the interactive effects of restrained and disinhibited eating and self-reported dieting to lose weight as predictors of weight gain in women. Design: Data were collected from non-Hispanic white women (n = 163) every 2 y. Height and weight were measured in triplicate. Dietary restraint and disinhibition were assessed by using the Eating Inventory. Participants were also asked if they were “currently dieting to lose weight.” Multilevel modeling was used to examine change in weight as a function of time-invariant and time-varying predictors, including dietary restraint, dietary disinhibition, and self-reported dieting. Results: After covariates were adjusted for, growth curve models showed that within-person increases in restraint over time were associated with concurrent decreases in weight and that higher levels of restraint moderated the positive association between dietary disinhibition and weight. Women who reported dieting at study entry were heavier at study entry and gained more weight over time than did nondieters. Finally, a significant interaction between restraint, disinhibition, and dieting showed that restraint moderated the effect of disinhibition on weight differently in nondieters than in dieters. Conclusions: Increasing levels of dietary restraint may be beneficial in moderating weight by attenuating the positive association between disinhibition and weight in dieting women. An understanding of weight and weight change requires examination of the interactive effects of restraint, disinhibition, and dieting

Bottle-Feeding Practices During Early Infancy and Eating Behaviors at 6 Years of Age

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests an association of breastfeeding with a maternal feeding style (MFS) that is less controlling than formula feeding, which, in turn, may improve a child’s self-regulation of eating. This study examines associations of bottle-feeding practices during infancy with MFS and children’s eating behavior (CEB) at 6 years old. METHODS: We linked data from the Infant Feeding Practices Study II to the Year 6 Follow-Up, which include 8 MFS and CEB measures adapted from previous validated instruments. Bottle-feeding practices during the first 6 months estimated by using the Infant Feeding Practices Study II were bottle-feeding intensity (BFI), mother’s encouragement of infant to finish milk in the bottle, and infant finishing all milk in the bottle. Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) for associations of bottle-feeding practices with MFS and CEB at 6 years old were calculated by using multivariable logistic regressions controlling for sociodemographic characteristics and other feeding practices (N = 1117). RESULTS: Frequent bottle emptying encouraged by mothers during infancy increased odds of mothers encouraging their child to eat all the food on their plate (aOR: 2.37; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.65–3.41] and making sure their child eats enough (aOR: 1.62; 95% CI: 1.14–2.31) and of children eating all the food on their plate at 6 years old (aOR: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.05–3.83). High BFI during early infancy also increased the odds of mothers being especially careful to ensure their 6-yearold eats enough. CONCLUSIONS: Bottle-feeding practices during infancy may have longterm effects on MFS and CEB. Frequent bottle emptying encouraged by mothers and/or high BFI during early infancy increased the likelihood of mothers pressuring their 6-year-old child to eat and children’s low satiety responsiveness

The quality of girls' diets declines and tracks across middle childhood

BACKGROUND: Food group intakes by US children are below recommendations and micronutrient inadequacies have been reported. There are few longitudinal data that focus on developmental changes in food and nutrient intake from early to middle childhood. We examined changes in nutrient and food group intakes over time and the tracking of intakes across middle childhood in a longitudinal sample of girls. METHODS: Three multiple-pass 24-hour diet recalls were conducted in a sample of 181 non-Hispanic White girls at ages 5, 7, and 9 years. Food and nutrient data were averaged across 3 days. Analyses of time effects were conducted using repeated measures analysis of variance and tracking of intakes was assessed via rank analysis. RESULTS: We found significant decreases in nutrient densities (intakes per 1000 kcal) of vitamins C and D, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and zinc at age 9. Girls maintained their relative quartile positions for these micronutrients from ages 5–9. Analysis of food group data showed similar trends. At age 9, significantly fewer girls were meeting the recommendations for dairy, fruit and vegetable servings than at age 5 and girls also tended to remain in their respective quartiles over time, especially for fruit and dairy intakes. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the importance of developing healthy eating practices during early childhood when caretakers have considerable control over children's food intake

Development of a theory-based questionnaire to assess structure and control in parent feeding (SCPF)

Abstract Background Parents shape children\u2019s eating environments and act as powerful socialization agents, impacting young children\u2019s behavioral controls of food intake. Most feeding measures assess parents\u2019 use of control to manage children\u2019s intake of energy dense foods. The Structure and Control in Parent Feeding (SCPF) questionnaire was developed to assess more positive aspects of feeding practices with their young children \u2014setting limits, providing routines\u2014that promote self-regulation, as well as controlling feeding practices. Methods A mixed method approach was used to develop the SCPF. In 2013, cognitive interviews informed the modification, deletion and/or replacement of items. In 2014, the survey was distributed statewide to mothers of toddlers aged 12 to 36\ua0months participating in the Women, Infants, and Children program. In 2016, exploratory factor analyses was conducted to test our theoretical parenting model and content validity and criterion validity were assessed ( n \u2009=\u2009334). Results Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and second-order EFA revealed a 2-factor, 22-item Structure model and a 2-factor, 12-item Control model. Internal consistencies for all factors exceeded 0.70. As predicted, the Structure superfactor was positivity associated with responsiveness, whereas the Control superfactor was positively associated with demandingness on the Caregiver\u2019s Feeding Styles Questionnaire. The Structure subscales were also positively associated with mealtime behaviors and Control subscales were positively associated with control-oriented feeding measures from the Control in Parent Feeding Practices questionnaire. Conclusion The SCPF questionnaire is a reliable tool that can be used to assess aspects of structure- and control-based feeding practices to better understand how parents feed their toddlers

Girls’ Dairy Intake, Energy Intake, and Weight Status

We explored the relationships among girls’ weight status, dairy servings, and total energy intake. The hypothesis that consuming dairy could reduce risk for overweight was evaluated by comparing energy intake and weight status of girls who met or consumed less than the recommended three servings of dairy per day. Participants included 172 11-year-old non-Hispanic white girls, assessed cross-sectionally. Intakes of dairy, calcium, and energy were measured using three 24-hour recalls. Body mass index and body fat measures from dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry were obtained. Because preliminary analyses suggested systematic underreporting of energy intake, the relationships among dairy servings and measures of weight status were examined for the total sample and for subsamples of under-, plausible, and overreporters. Data for the total sample provided support for the hypothesized relationship among weight status, dairy servings, and energy intake. Thirty-nine percent of girls reported consuming the recommended ≥3 servings of dairy per day; these girls also reported higher energy intake but had lower body mass index z scores and body fat than the girls who consumed fewer than three dairy servings each day. Among plausible reporters, no relationship between dairy intake and weight status was noted. This discrepancy may be attributable to a high percentage (45%) of overweight underreporters in the total sample. Our findings reveal that reporting bias, resulting from the presence of a substantial proportion of underreporters of higher weight status, can contribute to obtaining spurious associations between dairy intake and weight status. These findings underscore the need for randomly controlled trials to assess the role of dairy in weight management. The prevalence of pediatric obesity has been rising for more than 20 years (1). There is evidence that increased intake of dairy foods and calcium may play a significant role in maintaining a healthful weight and moderating body fat (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15). However, results across studies have been inconsistent (16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28), and this may be attributable to major challenges in using self-reported dietary intake data. Self-reported intakes tend to be subject to underreporting bias and the underreporting of energy intake tends to be positively related to weight status. Underreporters also tend to weigh more (29 and 30). Doubly labeled water techniques assessing energy expenditure suggest underreporting results in a 10% to 50% underestimation of actual energy intake and is a significant problem in older children (31). Doubly labeled water techniques are expensive and not feasible for large samples; thus, several methods have been developed that use estimated energy requirements to assess reporting bias (29 and 32). Therefore, in this study the method suggested by Huang and colleagues (29) was used to classify children as under-, plausible, or overreporters. The objective of this study was to assess the relationship among girls’ weight status, dairy servings, and total energy intake. The hypothesis that consuming dairy could reduce risk for overweight was evaluated by comparing energy intake and weight status of girls who met or consumed less than the recommended three servings of dairy per day. To explore the effect of reporting bias on this relationship, the hypothesis was evaluated using the total sample, and subgroups of girls identified as plausible, under-, or overreporters

Reductions in entrée energy density increase children\u27s vegetable intake and reduce energy intake

The energy density (ED; kcal/g) of an entr&eacute;e influences children\u27s energy intake (EI), but the effect of simultaneously changing both ED and portion size of an entr&eacute;e on preschool children\u27s EI is unknown. In this within-subject crossover study, 3- to 5-year-old children (30 boys, 31 girls) in a daycare facility were served a test lunch once/week for 4 weeks. The amount and type of vegetables and cheeses incorporated into the sauce of a pasta entr&eacute;e were manipulated to create two versions that varied in ED by 25% (1.6 or 1.2 kcal/g). Across the weeks, each version of the entr&eacute;e was served to the children in each of two portion sizes (400 or 300 g). Lunch, consumed ad libitum, also included carrots, applesauce, and milk. Decreasing ED of the entr&eacute;e by 25% significantly (P &lt; 0.0001) reduced children\u27s EI of the entr&eacute;e by 25% (63.1 8.3 kcal) and EI at lunch by 17% (60.7 8.9 kcal). Increasing the proportion of vegetables in the pasta entr&eacute;e increased children\u27s vegetable intake at lunch by half of a serving of vegetables (P &lt; 0.01). Decreasing portion size of the entr&eacute;e by 25% did not significantly affect children\u27s total food intake or EI at lunch. Therefore, reducing the ED of a lunch entr&eacute;e resulted in a reduction in children\u27s EI from the entr&eacute;e and from the meal in both portion size conditions. Decreasing ED by incorporating more vegetables into recipes is an effective way of reducing children\u27s EI while increasing their vegetable intake.<br /