Why Are Women Still Not Running for Public Office?

Analyzes the factors behind women's underrepresentation in public office; the degree to which gender affects political ambition, perceptions of politics, and willingness to campaign; and the reasons women are less likely to run for office than men

If Only They\u27d Ask: Gender, Recruitment, and Political Ambition

Based on data from the second wave of the Citizen Political Ambition Panel Study-our national survey of more than 2,000 potential candidates in 2008-we provide the first thorough analysis of the manner in which gender interacts with political recruitment in the candidate eligibility pool. Our findings are striking. Highly qualified and politically well-connected women from both major political parties are less likely than similarly situated men to be recruited to run for public office by all types of political actors. They are less likely than men to be recruited intensely. And they are less likely than men to be recruited by multiple sources. Although we paint a picture of a political recruitment process that seems to suppress women\u27s inclusion, we also offer the first evidence of the significant headway women\u27s organizations are making in their efforts to mitigate the recruitment gap, especially among Democrats. These findings are critically important because women\u27s recruitment disadvantage depresses their political ambition and ultimately hinders their emergence as candidates

Gaining and Losing Interest in Running for Public Office: The Concept of Dynamic Political Ambition

Considering a candidacy for public office involves pondering the courageous step of going before an electorate and facing potential examination, scrutiny, and rejection. Anyone who contemplates running for office, therefore, must answer a series of questions. Is the time right to inject my family into the political arena? Where am I in terms of my professional goals? Do I know enough about the issues and the political system to run for office? Am I in sync with my potential constituents on the issues that matter most? Have electoral gatekeepers indicated support for my foray into politics? Do I really want to take part in a political process that is so often associated with self-interest, corruption, and cynicism? In short, a variety of personal, professional, and political circumstances-circumstances that often change over time-undoubtedly affect the extent to which someone considers entering the electoral arena

Uncovering the Origins of the Gender Gap in Political Ambition

Based on survey responses from a national random sample of nearly 4,000 high school and college students, we uncover a dramatic gender gap in political ambition. This finding serves as striking evidence that the gap is present well before women and men enter the professions from which most candidates emerge. We then use political socialization—which we gauge through a myriad of socializing agents and early life experiences—as a lens through which to explain the individual-level differences we uncover. Our analysis reveals that parental encouragement, politicized educational and peer experiences, participation in competitive activities, and a sense of self-confidence propel young people\u27s interest in running for office. But on each of these dimensions, women, particularly once they are in college, are at a disadvantage. By identifying when and why gender differences in interest in running for office materialize, we begin to uncover the origins of the gender gap in political ambition. Taken together, our results suggest that concerns about substantive and symbolic representation will likely persist

The Invincible Gender Gap in Political Ambition

When we uncovered a large gender gap in political ambition in the early 2000s, our research highlighted how far the United States was from gender parity in politics. Given marked increases in women’s numeric representation throughout the past two decades, many might expect the gender gap in political ambition to have begun to close. Results from our new study of potential candidates, however, reveal that the magnitude of the gender gap is just as large 20 years later, and two primary explanations persist as well. We posit that even though candidate recruitment has propelled more women into electoral politics, patterns of traditional gender socialization persist. These dynamics, coupled with negative perceptions of how female candidates are treated, continue to depress women’s interest in elective office. As long as running for office is a more remote endeavor for women than men, women’s full political inclusion will remain a distant goal

Entrando na arena? Gênero e a decisão de concorrer a um cargo eletivo

Resumo Há um vazio importante na pesquisa sobre a sub-representação das mulheres em cargos eletivos, relacionado à decisão inicial de concorrer. Com base em dados de nosso Citizen Political Ambition Study, a primeira pesquisa nacional de grande escala sobre candidatos potenciais, examinamos o processo pelo qual mulheres e homens surgem como candidatos a cargos eletivos. Nossa conclusão é de que mulheres que têm as mesmas características pessoais e credenciais profissionais dos homens expressam níveis significativamente inferiores de ambição política para ocupar esses cargos. Dois fatores explicam essa lacuna de gênero: primeiro, as mulheres têm probabilidades bem menores do que os homens de ser incentivadas a concorrer; segundo, elas têm probabilidades bem menores do que os homens de se considerar qualificadas para concorrer. Nossas conclusões colocam em questão as principais explicações teóricas para a sub-representação numérica das mulheres e indicam que, em função de vestígios da socialização baseada em papéis sexuais tradicionais, as perspectivas de paridade de gênero nas instituições políticas dos Estados Unidos são menos promissoras do que sugerem as explicações convencionais. Palavras-chave: gênero; eleições; representação; carreira política; ambição política.   Abstract A critical void in the research on women's underrepresentation in elective office is an analysis of the initial decision to run for office. Based on data from our Citizen Political Ambition Study, the first large-scale national survey of potential candidates, we examine the process by which women and men emerge as candidates for public office. We find that women who share the same personal characteristics and professional credentials as men express significantly lower levels of political ambition to hold elective office. Two factors explain this gender gap: first, women are far less likely than men to be encouraged to run for office; second, women are significantly less likely than men to view themselves as qualified to run. Our findings call into question the leading theoretical explanations for women's numeric underrepresentation and indicate that, because of vestiges of traditional sex-role socialization, prospects for gender parity in U.S. political institutions are less promising than conventional explanations suggest. Key words: gender; elections; representation; political career; political ambition

Predispositions and the Political Behavior of American Economic Elites: Evidence from Technology Entrepreneurs

Economic elites regularly seek to exert political influence. But what policies do they support? Many accounts implicitly assume economic elites are homogeneous and that increases in their political power will increase inequality. We shed new light on heterogeneity in economic elites' political preferences, arguing that economic elites from an industry can share distinctive preferences due in part to sharing distinctive predispositions. Consequently, how increases in economic elites' influence affect inequality depends on which industry's elites are gaining influence and which policy issues are at stake. We demonstrate our argument with four original surveys, including the two largest political surveys of American economic elites to date: one of technology entrepreneurs—whose influence is burgeoning—and another of campaign donors. We show that technology entrepreneurs support liberal redistributive, social, and globalistic policies but conservative regulatory policies—a bundle of preferences rare among other economic elites. These differences appear to arise partly from their distinctive predispositions

Feedback between p21 and reactive oxygen production is necessary for cell senescence

The sustained activation of CDKN1A (p21/Waf1/Cip1) by a DNA damage response induces mitochondrial dysfunction and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production via signalling through CDKN1A-GADD45A-MAPK14- GRB2-TGFBR2-TGFbeta in senescing primary human and mouse cells in vitro and in vivo.Enhanced ROS production in senescing cells generates additional DNA damage. Although this damage is repairable and transient, it elevates the average levels of DNA damage response permanently, thus forming a positive feedback loop.This loop is necessary and sufficient to maintain the stability of growth arrest until a ‘point of no return' is reached during establishment of senescence