Hierarchical Segmentation of the Malawi Rift: The Influence of Inherited Lithospheric Heterogeneity and Kinematics in the Evolution of Continental Rifts

We used detailed analysis of Shuttle Radar Topography Mission-digital elevation model and observations from aeromagnetic data to examine the influence of inherited lithospheric heterogeneity and kinematics in the segmentation of largely amagmatic continental rifts. We focused on the Cenozoic Malawi Rift, which represents the southern extension of the Western Branch of the East African Rift System. This north trending rift traverses Precambrian and Paleozoic-Mesozoic structures of different orientations. We found that the rift can be hierarchically divided into first-order and second-order segments. In the first-order segmentation, we divided the rift into Northern, Central, and Southern sections. In its Northern Section, the rift follows Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic terrains with structural grain that favored the localization of extension within well-developed border faults. The Central Section occurs within Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic terrain with regional structures oblique to the rift extent. We propose that the lack of inherited lithospheric heterogeneity favoring extension localization resulted in the development of the rift in this section as a shallow graben with undeveloped border faults. In the Southern Section, Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic rocks were reactivated and developed the border faults. In the second-order segmentation, only observed in the Northern Section, we divided the section into five segments that approximate four half-grabens/asymmetrical grabens with alternating polarities. The change of polarity coincides with flip-over full-grabens occurring within overlap zones associated with ∼150 km long alternating border faults segments. The inherited lithospheric heterogeneity played the major role in facilitating the segmentation of the Malawi Rift during its opening resulting from extension

Under-displaced normal faults: Strain accommodation along an early-stage rift-bounding fault in the Southern Malawi Rift

One of the fundamental problems in continental rift segmentation and propagation is how strain is accommodated along large rift-bounding faults (border faults) since the segmentation of propagating border faults control the expression of rift zones, syn-rift depo-centers, and long-term basin evolution. In the Southern Malawi Rift, where previous studies on the early-stage rifting only assessed border fault structure from surficial and topographic expression, we integrate surface and subsurface data to investigate border fault segmentation, linkage, and growth as proxies for strain accommodation along the Bilila-Mtakataka Fault (BMF) System. We used 30�m-resolution topographic relief maps, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), and high-resolution aeromagnetic data to characterize the detailed fault geometry and provide a more robust estimate of along-fault displacement distribution. Our results reveal a discrepancy between sub-aerial segmentation of the BMF geometry (six segments), scarp height (five segments) reflecting the most recent episodes of fault offset, and cumulative throw (three composite segments) reflecting the long-term fault offset. We also observe that although the BMF exhibits continuity of sub-aerial scarps along its length, the throw distribution shows a higher estimate at the Northern-to-Central segment relay zone (423�m absolute, 364�m moving median) compared to the Central-to-Southern segment relay zone (371�m absolute, 297�m moving median). The ERT profiles across the relay zones suggest a shallower basement and a possible canyon-mouth alluvial fan stratigraphy at the Central-to-Southern segment relay zone, contrasting the deeper basement and 'simpler'� electrical stratigraphy at the Northern-to-Central relay. The results suggest a more complex long-term evolution of the BMF than was assumed in previous studies. A comparison of BMF's maximum displacement-vs-length with those of other Malawi Rift border faults and global normal fault populations suggest that although the BMF has possibly reached its maximum length, it remains largely under-displaced as its 580-837�m maximum displacement is significantly lower than that of faults of equivalent length. We suggest that the BMF may continue to accrue significant strain as tectonic extension progresses in the Southern Malawi Rift, thus posing a major seismic hazard in the region.Peer reviewedGeolog

Semiautomatic algorithm to map tectonic faults and measure scarp height from topography applied to the Volcanic Tablelands and the Hurricane fault, western US

Observations of fault geometry and cumulative slip distribution serve as critical constraints on fault behavior over temporal scales ranging from a single earthquake to a fault's complete history. The increasing availability of high-resolution topography (at least one observation per square meter) from air and spaceborne platforms facilitates measuring geometric properties along faults over a range of spatial scales. However, manually mapping faults and measuring slip or scarp height is time-intensive, limiting the use of rich topography datasets. To substantially decrease the time required to analyze fault systems, we developed a novel approach for systematically mapping dip-slip faults and measuring scarp height. Our MATLAB algorithm detects fault scarps from topography by identifying regions of steep relief given length and slope parameters calibrated from a manually drawn fault map. We applied our algorithm to well-preserved normal faults in the Volcanic Tablelands of eastern California using four datasets: (1) structure-from-motion topography from a small uncrewed aerial system (sUAS; 20 cm resolution), (2) airborne laser scanning (25 cm), (3) Pleiades stereosatellite imagery (50 cm), and SRTM (30 m) topography. The algorithm and manually mapped fault trace architectures are consistent for primary faults, although can differ for secondary faults. On average, the scarp height profiles are asymmetric, suggesting fault lateral propagation and along-strike variations in the fault's mechanical properties. We applied our algorithm to Arizona and Utah with a specific focus on the normal Hurricane fault where the algorithm mapped faults and other prominent topographic features well. This analysis demonstrates that the algorithm can be applied in a variety of geomorphic and tectonic settings.Peer reviewedGeolog

Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome

The sequence of the human genome encodes the genetic instructions for human physiology, as well as rich information about human evolution. In 2001, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium reported a draft sequence of the euchromatic portion of the human genome. Since then, the international collaboration has worked to convert this draft into a genome sequence with high accuracy and nearly complete coverage. Here, we report the result of this finishing process. The current genome sequence (Build 35) contains 2.85 billion nucleotides interrupted by only 341 gaps. It covers ∼99% of the euchromatic genome and is accurate to an error rate of ∼1 event per 100,000 bases. Many of the remaining euchromatic gaps are associated with segmental duplications and will require focused work with new methods. The near-complete sequence, the first for a vertebrate, greatly improves the precision of biological analyses of the human genome including studies of gene number, birth and death. Notably, the human enome seems to encode only 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes. The genome sequence reported here should serve as a firm foundation for biomedical research in the decades ahead

Extent, Kinematics and Tectonic Origin of the Precambrian Aswa Shear Zone in Eastern Africa

The Aswa Shear Zone (ASZ) is a fundamental Precambrian lithospheric structure that has been shaped by many tectonic events in eastern Africa. It separates the Saharan Metacraton in the northeast from the Northern Uganda terrane (which represents part of the Northeastern Congo block of the Congo craton) to the southwest. Nonetheless, its tectonic evolution is not fully understood. We used high-resolution airborne magnetic and radiometric data over Uganda integrated with Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) in South Sudan to assess the extent, kinematics and contribute to the understanding of the tectonic origin of the ASZ. (1) Our results showed that the ASZ extends in a NW-SE direction for ∼550 km in Uganda and South Sudan. (2) The airborne magnetic and radiometric data revealed a much wider (∼50 km) deformation belt than the 5-10 km of the exposed surface expression of the ASZ. The deformation belt is defined by three NW-trending sinistral strike-slip shear zones bounding structural domains with magnetic fabric showing splays of secondary shear zones and shear-related folds. These folds are tighter close to the discrete shear zones with their axial traces becoming sub-parallel to the shear zones. A similar fold pattern is observed in South Sudan from the SRTM DEM. We interpreted these folds as due to ENE-WSW contraction associated with the sinistral strike-slip movement. (3) To the northeast, the magnetic patterns and radiometric signatures suggest the presence of a series of W-verging nappes indicative of strong E-W to NE-SW contraction deformation. (4) We relate the evolution of the ASZ to E-W to NE-SW Neoproterozoic oblique collision between East and West Gondwana. The deformation related to this collision was partitioned into E-W to NE-SW contraction resulting in W-verging thrusts in the east and a sinistral strike-slip movement along the NW-trending ASZ with the strain localized at the boundary between the Saharan Metacraton and the Northern Uganda terrane

The Influence of the Precambrian Mughese Shear Zone Structures on Strain Accommodation in the Northern Malawi Rift

Precambrian shear zones have been recognized as regions that affect the propagation, segmentation, and location of continental rifts. However, it is still unclear how the orientation of these shear zones influence strain accommodation along the rifts. In this study, we investigated the influence of the Mughese Shear Zone (MSZ) on strain accommodation within the young magma-poor Malawi Rift, a seismically-active segment of the Western Branch of the East African Rift System. We used Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Models (DEM), aeromagnetic data, and mapped mesoscopic-scale structures within the Precambrian MSZ and younger rocks in the Karonga area. We found that in the northern portion of the Karonga Fault Zone, a fault zone that accommodates the majority of extension in this region, one major fault is oriented 32°/59° SE and cuts across the Precambrian foliation that has an orientation of 301°/79° NE. South of the city of Karonga, the Precambrian foliation is sub-vertical and has a strike of 321°. Here, the Karonga fault splays from a main fault with a 2 km damage zone to several distinct E-and W-dipping faults over a 10 km zone that strike in the general direction of the foliation planes of the MSZ. Recent seismicity is distributed within this zone. The faults formed in reactivated foliation planes of the MSZ. The N-striking Karoo rift horsts and grabens and their associated rock formations might have also been reactivated in this area. These relationships suggest that within the northern Malawi Rift, extension was accommodated differently based on the nature and orientation of the pre-existing structures. The orientation of the Precambrian MSZ influences strain accommodation in the Karonga area and has important implications for seismic hazards. We conclude that the Karonga area is an important seismically active zone based on favorably-oriented and reactivated pre-existing structures

Evolution of the Broadly Rifted Zone in Southern Ethiopia through Gravitational Collapse and Extension of Dynamic Topography

The Broadly Rifted Zone (BRZ) is a ~ 315 km wide zone of extension in southern Ethiopia. It is located between the Southern Main Ethiopian Rift and the Eastern Branch of the East African Rift System (EARS) represented by the Kenya-Turkana Rift. The BRZ is characterized by NE-trending ridges and valleys superimposed on regionally uplifted (~ 2 km average elevation) terrain. Previous studies proposed that the BRZ is an overlap zone resulted from northward propagation of the Kenya-Turkana Rift and southward propagation of the Southern Main Ethiopian Rift. To understand the relationship between the BRZ\u27s extensional style and its crustal and upper mantle structures, this work first estimated the Moho depth using the two-dimensional (2D) radially-averaged power spectral analysis of the World Gravity Map. Verification of these results was accomplished through lithospheric-scale 2D forward gravity models along E-W profiles. This work found that the Moho topography beneath the BRZ depicts a dome-like shape with a minimum depth of ~ 27 km in the center of the dome. This work proposes that the Moho doming, crustal arching underlying the BRZ and associated topographic uplift are the result of asthenospheric mantle upwelling beneath the BRZ. This upwelling changed to a NE-directed lateral mantle flow at shallower depth. This is supported by seismic tomography imaging which shows slow S-wave velocity anomaly at lithospheric depth of 75 km to 150 km stretching in a NE-SW direction from beneath the BRZ to the Afar Depression. This work proposes that the asthenospheric upwelling created gravitationally unstable dynamic topography that triggered extensional gravitational collapse leading to the formation of the BRZ as a wide rift within the narrow rift segments of the EARS

Assessing Groundwater Accessibility in the Kharga Basin, Egypt: A Remote Sensing Approach

We used multi-map analysis of remote sensing and ancillary data to identify potentially accessible sites for groundwater resources in the Kharga Basin in the Western Desert of Egypt. This basin is dominated by Cretaceous sandstone formations and extends within the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer. It is dissected by N-S and E-W trending faults, possibly acting as conduits for upward migration of groundwater. Analysis of paleo-drainage using Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generated from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data shows that the Kharga was a closed basin that might have been the site of a paleo-lake. Lake water recharged the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer during the wetter Holocene time. We generated the following layers for the multi-map analysis: (1) Fracture density map from the interpretation of Landsat Operational Land Imager (OLI), SRTM DEM, and RADARSAT data. (2) Thermal Inertia (TI) map (for moisture content imaging) from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. (3) Hydraulic conductivity map from mapping lithological units using the Landsat OLI and previously published data. (4) Aquifer thickness map from previously published data. We quantitatively ranked the Kharga Basin by considering that regions of high fracture density, high TI, thicker aquifer, and high hydraulic conductivity have higher potential for groundwater accessibility. Our analysis shows that part of the southern Kharga Basin is suitable for groundwater extraction. This region is where N-S and E-W trending faults intersect, has relatively high TI and it is underlain by thick aquifer. However, the suitability of this region for groundwater use will be reduced significantly when considering the changes in land suitability and economic depth to groundwater extraction in the next 50 years

Geophysical Investigation of Thermal Structures beneath the Malawi Rift

Most magmatic continental rifts are characterized by surficial expression of magma, which explains the role played by magma in softening the lithosphere in extensional environments, enhancing rifting. The Malawi Rift forms the southern limit of the Western Branch of the East African Rift System (EARS). The Malawi Rift, though showing geomorphic features of a rift, does not show any volcanism except at its northern tip where the rift is older. This has raised the question of the need for magma in rift initiation. Determining the thermal structure beneath the Malawi rift could provide an insight into the mechanism of strain localisation during the rift initiation. The purpose of this study is to determine the thermal structures beneath the Malawi rift through 2D power density spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data collected over Malawi, and how they are related to strain localisation during rift initiation. The thermal structure was determined from heat flow values derived from the Curie point depth (CPD) of the Malawi rift. CPD of the Malawi Rift range from 17.8 to 27.5 km. The estimated heat flow values range between 52 and 81 mW m-2. Elevated heat flow values (\u3e75 mW m-2) occur in the north, center and south of the rift. Areas of elevated heat flow values are interpreted as due to the presents of partial melts and mantle fluids