Territorial marking behavior of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx L.) in Slovenian Dinaric mountains

Označevanje teritorija pri evrazijskem risu (Lynx lynx L.) je eden glavnih načinov znotrajvrstnega sporazumevanja med osebki te vrste. Izraža se z označevanjem objektov z urinom ter drgnjenjem telesa ob te objekte. Poznavanje tega obnašanja je pomembno pri raziskovanju te skrivnostne mačke in razumevanje njenega socialnega sistema. Diplomska naloga obravnava vlogo in značilnosti označevanja teritorija pri evrazijskem risu na območju slovenskih Dinaridov. Raziskava je zajemala sledenje risa v snegu vključno z meritvami dolžin sledi, popis značilnosti objektov za označevanje in popis razpoložljivosti potencialnih objektov na njegovi poti. Opravljena je bila tudi video spremljava označevanega objekta. Cilj naloge je bil raziskati teritorialno vedenje evrazijskega risa povezano z označevanjem objektov, ugotoviti katere objekte izbira za označevanje, kako označuje in ali so uporabljeni objekti za označevanje naključno izbrani ali jih ris dejansko izbira. Namen je bil tudi analizirati dogajanje in spremljanje prisotnosti drugih živali v okolici objekta za označevanja. Skupna pot, kjer smo sledili risu je znašala 17,98 km. Domnevamo, da smo vselej sledili istemu osebku. Ris je za označevanje največkrat uporabljal mlade iglavce (37%) ter izbiral objekte v višinskem razredu od 0,5 % 1 m. Pogostost označevanja je bila najvišja na gozdnih cestah z 9,7 označevanji / km, najnižja pa na gozdnih vlakah s 3,5 označevanji / km. Poraščenost skal z mahom in njihov naklon ni vplivala na izbiro označevanja. Ris ni izbiral objektov za označevanje glede na obliko gozdne ceste (notranja stran ovinka, zunanja stran ovinka, ravnina). Z video spremljavo smo na podlagi 8 posnetkov ugotovili, da se je isti spremljan osebek vračal na povprečno 14,1 dni ter vedno v nočnem ali zgodnje-jutranjem času. V okolici objekta za označevanje (drevesni štor) so bili prisotni še jazbec (Meles meles), lisica (Vulpes vulpes), jelenjad (Cervus elaphus) in rjavi medved (Ursus arctos).Territorial marking is one of the main ways of communication between individuals of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx L.). It encompasses marking of objects with the urine and body scrubbing. Understanding this behavior is important when studying these elusive cats and understanding of their social system. The Diploma thesis deals with the role of territory marking of the Eurasian lynx in the area of Slovenian Dinarides and the characteristics of this behavior. The study consisted of tracking lynx in the snow, analysing characteristics of marking objects and survey of availability of potential objects on its path. There was also a video monitoring of one of the marking objects. The aim of the thesis was to explore territorial behavior of Eurasian lynx associated with marking of objects, selection of these objects, as well as spatial and temporal frequency of territorial marking by lynx. The purpose of video monitoring of tree stump was also to analyze behavior and monitor the presence of other forest animals at the marking object. We tracked lynx in snow in total of 17,98 km. We assume that we have always followed the same individual. Lynx often used young conifers for marking (37%), and had preferably marked the objects that were in the height range from 0,5 % 1 m. Frequency of marking was highest on forest roads with 9,7 markings per kilometer and the lowest in forest tracks with 3,5 markings per kilometer. Coverage with moss and inclination did not affect lynx selection of marking on the rocks. Lynx also do not select objects for marking based on the shape of forest roads (inner side of the bend, outside bend, straight road). With video monitoring that was based on 8 shots, we observed that the adult male lynx had an average of 14,1 days of returning time to the marked tree stump, and always visited it at night or dawn. In the nearby of this marking object, we also noticed presence of European badger (Meles meles), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and brown bear (Ursus arctos)

Selection of resting sites by Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in the Slovenian Dinaric Mountains

Evrazijski ris (Lynx lynx) je pretežno nočno-aktivna vrsta, kar pomeni, da večino dneva prespi oziroma počiva. Mikro-habitatni izbor dnevnih počivališč pri risu je zaenkrat še slabo raziskana tema, kljub temu da predstavlja pomemben vidik ekologije te vrste. Cilj naloge je bil opis značilnosti dnevnih počivališč risa v slovenskih Dinaridih in ugotoviti, katere reliefne strukture oziroma tipe vegetacije risi izbirajo za svoja počivališča. Raziskava je zajemala terenski popis dnevnih počivališč, ki so bila določena s pomočjo telemetričnih ovratnic in sledenja v snegu ter popis naključnih lokacij, ki so bile ustvarjene znotraj teritorijev istih risov. Na lokacijah smo popisovali različne parametre, ki so opisovali vegetacijo, različne topografske in reliefne značilnosti ter vidljivost. Skupno smo popisali 217 risjih počivališč od 8 različnih osebkov in enako število naključnih lokacij na območju snežniških in javorniških gozdov, Velike in Male gore ter kočevske Stojne. Razlike med risjimi počivališči in naključnimi lokacijami ter razlike med počivališči v bližini plena in počivališči brez plena smo analizirali s pomočjo univariatnih in multi-variatnih testov. S posplošenim linearnim mešanim modelom (GLMM) smo ugotovili, da so risi izbirali lokacije z večjimi nakloni, večjo razgibanostjo terena, manjšo vidljivostjo, večjo oddaljenostjo od človeških objektov in lokacije na vrhu grebenov oziroma vrhov. Risi so izbirali tudi sestojni tip mladovje ter vegetacijski tip goščava, kar je verjetno povezano predvsem z večjim kritjem. Pri primerjavi dnevnih počivališč glede prisotnosti plena smo opazili bolj izrazito selekcijo na počivališčih brez plena, vendar so bile razlike večinoma majhne. Rezultati prikazani v tej nalogi se večinoma skladajo z zaključki tujih raziskav, ki so se ukvarjale z dnevnimi počivališči pri risih in drugih vrstah mačk, nekatere vidike pa smo raziskali kot prvi. Rezultatov bi lahko bili uporabni tudi za bolj učinkovito ohranjanje habitatov pomembnih za risa, na primer pri presoji vplivov umeščanja infrastrukture v gozdni prostor.Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is mostly nocturnal species and spends daytime mostly sleeping and resting. Micro-habitat selection of lynx resting sites is still a poorly researched topic, although it has an important role in the ecology of this species. The goal of the present thesis was to describe characteristics of daily lynx resting places in Slovenian Dinaric Mountains and investigate which relief structures and which types of vegetation lynx select for their resting site in respect to their availability. The study included a field surveys of daily resting sites that were determined unsing GPS telemetry collars and snow tracking. We also surveyed the same number of random control locations created within the territory of the same lynx. Various parameters were described at the locations describing the vegetation, several topographic and relief features and visibility. A total of 217 lynx resting sites of 8 different individuals and an equal number of random locations were sampled. The field work was taking place in Snežnik and Javorniki forests, Velika and Mala gora and Stojna. Differences between lynx resting places and random locations, as well as differences between resting places near prey and resting places without prey, were analyzed using univariate and multi-variant analyses. With the use of general linear mixed model (GLMM) we found that lynx selected locations with steeper slopes, greater terrain diversity, lower visibility, larger distance to human objects and sites located on top of ridges and hilltops. The lynx also selected juvenile forests and bushes, which is probably related with better cover. When comparing daily resting sites with or without presence of prey remains, we observed more pronounced selection at resting sites without prey, although the differences were mostly small. Our results are mostly comparable to conclusions of research on resting sites of lynx and other felids in other countries, while some aspects we studied for the first time. Some of our results could be used for more effective conservation of habitats important for lynx, for example when planning construction of new infrastructure in forest landscape

Does human infrastructure shape scent marking in a solitary felid?

Human development, such as construction of roads and trails, can affect several animal behaviour traits and is increasing worldwide. Despite the importance of scent marking for communication and social organization in many mammals, it is not clearly understood how scent marking is affected by human habitat modification. We used snow tracking data collected across six winters to study the effects of road infrastructure on the marking behaviour of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in a human-dominated landscape. We found that lynx marked at higher rates (11.2 urine sprays/km) on human routes (forest roads and logging trails) than when walking in natural habitat (5.8 sprays/km). This pattern was noted in both sexes, although males walked on human routes more frequently and scent marked more often than females. Compared to previous studies the mean marking rates we observed were the highest documented so far for wild felids. This may mainly be due to regular use of human routes (42% of all lynx movement) and the high scent marking rates found thereon. Human routes channelize lynx movement, and scent marking on these routes likely increases the probability of the chemical message being received by a conspecifictherefore human routes might enable more effective communication in territorial felids. Since most of the landscapes worldwide are covered by road networks and various human objects, the marking behaviour of wild mammals may be profoundly changed due to human-caused habitat modifications

Felid bedrooms with a panoramic view: selection of resting sites by Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in a karstic landscape

Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is a crepuscular-nocturnal carnivore and mostly spends daytime resting. Although resting sites represent an important part of the lynx habitat and can be negatively affected by human activities, it is still poorly known how lynx select these sites, especially in regions with rugged topography characteristic for much of the species% range. We analysed microscale habitat selection of lynx resting sites at the home-range level in a karstic landscape of the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia, using a use-availability study design. We also searched for differences in the selection of resting sites in respect to the presence of ungulate kills, which often limit the available resting sites during the prey-consumption period. Using generalised linear mixed models (GLMM), we tested which environmental features and human infrastructure are important for lynx when choosing resting sites. Lynx selected mountain ridges and hilltops, as well as locations with steeper slopes and lower local visibility. Such locations likely provide concealment from potential danger or prey and, at the same time, offer good overview of the surroundings. There was also a tendency to avoid forest cabins and to select rocky terrain and southern exposures, but support in the data for this was lower. When lynx were not limited by the presence of fresh kill, the selection tended to be stronger, but the differences were not significant, except for visibility, which was lower at resting sites near prey remains. Results likely reflect high availability of suitable resting sites in a rugged terrain of karstic landscape

Orange: data mining toolbox in Python

Orange is a machine learning and data mining suite for data analysis through Python scripting and visual programming. Here we report on the scripting part, which features interactive data analysis and component-based assembly of data mining procedures. In the selection and design of components, we focus on the flexibility of their reuse: our principal intention is to let the user write simple and clear scripts in Python, which build upon C++ implementations of computationally-intensive tasks. Orange is intended both for experienced users and programmers, as well as for students of data mining

Where to leave a message? The selection and adaptive significance of scent-marking sites for Eurasian lynx

Scent marking is an important aspect of social organization and intraspecific communication for many mammals, including solitary felids. By selecting specific micro-locations for scent marking, an individual may increase its success in defending its territory and finding mates. Few studies, however, have reported the selection of scent-marking objects and sites by wild felids. To improve our understanding of this behavior and its adaptive significance, we developed and tested a set of mutually non-exclusive hypotheses explaining selection of scent-marking objects by Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). We used snow tracking to locate and determine the characteristics of objects lynx used and selected for urine spraying. Lynx did not mark objects according to their availability but selected juvenile conifers and often marked the surface that was sheltered from the elements (%persistence hypothesis%). Lynx also selected for objects similar in size to lynx and objects located on straight road sections and avoided the most frequently available object types. This selection may have both promoted detectability of the messages by the conspecifics (%detection hypothesis%) and reduced energy expenditure of marking (%accessibility hypothesis%). Our study also indicated trade-offs faced by lynx, as the preferred marking objects were often not readily available. Therefore, suboptimal marking objects were sometimes used, most likely in order to maintain the high scent-marking frequency needed throughout their territory. We suggest that Eurasian lynx, and possibly other solitary felids, developed scent-marking behaviors that increase effectiveness and efficiency of their communication

Golden jackal as a new kleptoparasite for Eurasian lynx in Europe

The arrival of a new carnivore can have important effects on local communities. While several effects of introduced alien species have been well documented, few studies have reported the ecological consequences of an expanding native species. Golden jackals (Canis aureus) are rapidly expanding their distribution in Europe, far beyond their historic range. While this raises many concerns about their potential impact on native wildlife, actual consequences are rarely recorded. Besides being a predator, the jackal is also an efficient scavenger and could function as a kleptoparasite for other predators living in areas colonized by jackals. Large felids are among the predators most vulnerable to kleptoparasitism and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) are already known to be negatively affected by several scavengers. Here we report on the first confirmed cases of jackals scavenging on lynx kills in the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. We used camera traps to monitor scavengers at 65 lynx kills and recorded two cases of groups of jackals feeding on roe deer killed by lynx. To determine the potential for jackal kleptoparasitism on lynx at the continental level, we also calculated trends in the overlap in distribution ranges of both species in Europe. To date, jackals have colonized 13% of lynx range, including parts of two highly threatened populations. Finally, we highlight the potential impact of sympatric grey wolves (Canis lupus) to modulate this newly described jackal-lynx kleptoparasitic interaction

Diverging ecological traits between the Balkan lynx and neighbouring populations as a basis for planning its genetic rescue

Selecting appropriate candidates for genetic rescue mostly relies on previous genetic research and monitoring, while ecological and behavioural traits of the remnant and source populations are rarely considered for such conservation measures. Because of their slow recovery, Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx populations in Central and Western Europe have been a repeated target of genetic reinforcements and reintroductions in the past 50 years. Once inhabiting much of south-eastern Europe, the Balkan lynx L. l. balcanicus is now critically endangered and confined to a small population. Long-term isolation has caused loss of genetic diversity and has possibly led to inbreeding depression. Immediate actions need to consider genetic reinforcement to increase the genetic diversity and secure population viability. Here, we compared the Balkan lynx with two neighbouring populations: Dinaric population originating from the Carpathian subspecies (L.l. carpathicus) and Anatolian population of Caucasian subspecies (L.l. dinniki) to determine is better suited source from an ecological standpoint. Main findings suggest that the L.l. carpathicus is ecologically more similar to the L.l. balcanicus and therefore likely better suited for the environment of south-western Balkans on the basis of prey preference (roe deer being the main prey), local prey availability (lower lagomorph and higher ungulate availability) and habitat use (predominant use of the mixed and broadleaved forests). We discuss the contrasting results of genetic and ecological analyses from both the evolutionary and conservation perspective and provide potential solutions that would take into account both aspects to pave the road towards potential genetic rescue of the Balkan lynx