Factors affecting French rabbit farmers adoption of pro-welfare innovations

[EN] Consumers are increasingly animal welfare-conscious and critical of indoor caged housing systems such as those used in rabbit farming, and Europe has committed to legislate a ban on caged animal farming. Research has evidenced several technical and economic drivers of system change or lock-in in the livestock sector. Here we study determinants, motivations and/or resistance to adoption of pro-welfare practices among French rabbit farmers. First, we held 31 exploratory interviews with rabbit farmers and then performed a thematic analysis on the interview transcripts. We then assessed French rabbit farmers receptivity to change, using questionnaires containing 83 variables addressing receptivity to change, technico-economic characterisation of the farms, professional situations, and the personal and professional life of the rabbit farmers. Receptivity to change was evaluated through two synthetic variables summarising pro-change practices (changes already made on-farm to housing, management, feeding, etc.) and interest in innovation (receptiveness to novelty and relationship with innovation) graded on a 3-point scale (low, moderate, high). We analysed effects of technico-economic and sociodemographic variables (social attributes, internal and external motivations) on interest in innovation and pro-change practices using Chi-square tests and Cramer s V. We collected 78 full questionnaires, i.e. covering 10% of the French population of professional rabbit farmers. Results showed a link between interest in innovation and pro-change practices (P<0.001). Sociodemographic variables (33%, 21/63; P<0.05) rather than technico-economic variables (5%, 1/19; P<0.05) were linked to receptivity to change. Pro-change practices were more influenced by the variables capturing internal motivations (6/16, economic, technical, work facilitation, materialise the farmer s interests) than external motivations (3/21, societal incentives, family group or social environment). The weight of the sociodemographic variables suggests that transition support systems should be thought out in terms of farmer attributes.This work was funded by the CLIPP, the Occitania Region, ERDF support (Living Lab Lapins project) and the INRAE (SANBA metaprogramme). We thank the members of the Living Lab Lapins consortium for testing the online questionnaire, and the CLIPP and FENALAP for distributing the online questionnaire to rabbit producer groups. We also thank the French rabbit farmers surveyed for their contribution to this work.Chiron, P.; Doré, A.; Lamothe, LF. (2022). Factors affecting French rabbit farmers adoption of pro-welfare innovations. World Rabbit Science. 30(4):249-265. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2022.1788224926530

Influence de l'alimentation sur les performances des oies et la durabilité du système de production du foie gras (effets de la substitution du maïs par du sorgho et de la forme de présentation de l'aliment)

Ce travail de thèse présente une synthèse de 5 expérimentations qui ont été réalisées afin d évaluer les possibilités techniques (essais 1 et 4), l intérêt zootechnique (essais 2, 3 et 5) et les conséquences sur la durabilité d une substitution du maïs par du sorgho dans la ration alimentaire des oies en phase de croissance-finition et pendant le gavage. Le mode d alimentation (entièrement granulée ou sous la forme d un mélange de graines de céréales entières et de granulés riches en protéines) a également été étudié. Nous avons mesuré les performances des animaux (gain de poids, IC, consommation, développement corporel comportement alimentaire) ainsi que la qualité des produits (magret et foie gras) obtenus après gavage. Nous avons évalué in fine les conséquences de ces innovations sur la durabilité du système de production du foie gras à l échelle de l atelier de production (méthode S+Durable?) et sur le cycle de production d un kilo de foie gras (méthode des ACV). Nos résultats montrent que la nature de la céréale (maïs vs. sorgho) utilisée pendant la phase de croissance-finition (6 à 14 semaines) n a aucune influence sur les performances des animaux. Cependant, nous avons observé que la consommation d aliments (+ 5% ; P < 0,05), le poids vif (+ 4% ; P < 0,05) et le développement des intestins (+ 9% ; P < 0,05) en phase de croissance-finition étaient plus élevés lorsque le régime alimentaire contenait des graines entières. L incorporation de sorgho pendant la phase de gavage, entraine une augmentation du poids des foies gras (+ 11% ; P < 0,05) et une diminution de l intensité de la couleur jaune du foie gras (- 25% ; P < 0,05). Une substitution totale du maïs par du sorgho pendant les phases d élevage et de gavage réduit les impacts environnementaux de la fabrication d 1 kg de foie gras et améliore les performances de durabilité économique et sociale de l atelier de production. L ensemble des résultats suggère que l utilisation de sorgho dans l alimentation des oies est techniquement possible pendant les phases de croissance-finition et de gavage, prometteuse zootechniquement et intéressante pour améliorer la durabilité du système de production.This thesis presents a summary of five experiments which were conducted to evaluate the technical feasibility (studies 1 and 4), zootechnical inetrest (studies 2, 3 and 5) and consequences on sustainability performance of the substitution of corn by sorghum in the diet of geese in growing-finishing period and during overfeeding. The form of diet presentation (totally pelleted or in form of a mixture of cereal whole seeds and protein rich pellets) was also studied. We measured animal performance (weight gain, FCR, feed intake, body characteristics, feeding behavior) and product quality (magret and foie gras) obtained after overfeeding period. We evaluated ultimately the consequences of these innovations on the sustainability of the foie gras production system at the level of rearing unit (S + Durable? method) and over the production cycle of 1 kg of foie gras (LCA method). Our results showed that the type of cereal (corn vs. sorghum) used during the growingfinishing period (6-14 weeks) has no effect on animal performance. However, we observed that feed intake (+ 5%; P < 0.05), body weight (+ 4%; P < 0.05) and the gut development (+9%; P < 0.05) during the growing-finishing period were higher when the diet contained whole grains. The use of sorghum during the overfeeding resulted in an increased weight of fatty liver (+11%; P < 0.05) and a decreased in the intensity of its yellow color (-25%; P < 0.05). A total substitution of corn by sorghum during both growing and overfeeding periods reduced the environmental impacts of 1 kg of foie gras production and increased the economic and social performance of the rearing unit. These results suggest that the use of sorghum in the diet of geese is feasible both during the growing-finishing and overfeeding period, promising from a zootechnical point of view and interesting to improve the sustainability of production systemTOULOUSE-INP (315552154) / SudocSudocFranceF

Pastured rabbit systems and organic certification: European union regulations and technical and economic performance in France

In the European Union (EU), organic rabbit farming (ORF) remains uncommon (≈50 farms), found mainly in France, and to a much lesser extent in Austria, Switzerland, Spain and Italy. As rabbits are herbivorous, ORF is based mainly on grazing. This review summarises information on the functioning and performance of rabbit farming systems in France, with organic certification and/or access to pasture. Recent studies have quantified the grass intake (30 to 80 g dry matter/d/rabbit) and growth rate of rabbits on pasture (15 to 30 g/d). ORF has an extensive production cycle with a mean of 2.7 parturitions per doe and per year. The main concerns for the farmers developing ORF include available land and managing health and feeding. However, in France, a herd with 40 does on 4 ha (of pastures and complementary crops), can provide a halftime minimum salary. Since January 2022, a new regulation on ORF is applied for all EU member countries that recommends a maximum use of pasture but nevertheless allows farmers to keep a herd with 40 does on only 200 m² of pasture. It also does not require rotating rabbits on the pasture between batches of animals, wich increases the risk of parasitism. A smartphone application (GAELA) was recently developed to assist with daily management of rabbit farming, and to build a database of technical benchmarks to support the development of organic and pastured rabbit farming in France

Effect of housing enrichment and type of flooring on the performance and behaviour of female rabbits

[EN] This study investigated the effect of housing enrichments (scratching card, gnawing material and a platform), of a change in height and in the type of flooring on the live weight, reproductive performance and behaviour of female rabbits, as well as on the feed intake and spatial distribution of females and their kits. A total of 40 multiparous female rabbits were monitored in three consecutive reproductive cycles (48-d intervals). Four days before parturition in each reproductive cycle, the females were randomly assigned to one of the five types of housing: Control (CNT: 102×47×30 cm, L×W× H); Scratching card (SCT: containing a scratching card); Gnawing materials (GNW: CNT dimensions plus a compressed lucerne hay block and a wooden stick); Platform (PLT: 102×47×60 cm, including a platform with a plastic floor) and Combination (CBN: PLT dimensions with the scratching card, the gnawing materials and a platform). Data were only recorded during the first and third reproductive cycles. The living conditions did not significantly alter the females’ live weight (4889 g at housing; 4890 g at mid-lactation; 4867 g at weaning), reproductive performance (9.0 kits born alive), survival of the kits (90%), nor the feed intake of females and their litters (542 g/day). Providing animals with a gnawing block stimulated Gnawing behaviour (median frequency per group: CTL=0.00, SCT=0.00, GNW=4.69, PLT=0.00, and CBN=2.34; PRearing up behaviour (median frequencies per group: CTL=0.00, SCT=0.00, GNW=0.00, PLT=2.08, and CBN=3.12; P=0.06), and when a platform was present, the rabbits used it (mean values per group: CTL=0.00, SCT=0.00, GNW=0.00, PLT=1.79, and CBN=4.91; P=0.003). Regarding the type of floor, females appeared to prefer the plastic mesh flooring (31.2%) to the wire mesh flooring (18.8%). To sum up, providing female rabbits with simple enrichments appears to stimulate specific behaviours like Gnawing and Rearing up and may contribute to their wellbeing.Huang, Y.; Bréda, J.; Savietto, D.; Debrusse, A.; Bonnemère, J.; Gidenne, T.; Combes, S.... (2021). Effect of housing enrichment and type of flooring on the performance and behaviour of female rabbits. World Rabbit Science. 29(4):275-285. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2021.15848OJS275285294Altmann J. 1974. Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour, 49: 227-266. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853974X00534Animal Welfare Committee. 2009. Five Freedoms. Available at https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110909181150/http://www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.htm. Accessed February 2021.ANSES. 2018. ANSES proposes a definition of animal welfare and sets the foundation for its research and expert appraisal work. Available at https://www.anses.fr/en/content/ansesproposes-definition-animal-welfare-and-sets-foundation-itsresearch-and-expert. Accessed February 2021.Barge P., Masoero G., Chicco R. 2008. Raising rabbit does in platform cages. In Proc.: 9th World Rabbit Congress, 10-13 June, 2008. Verona, Italy. 1:1153-1158.Buijs S., Maertens L., Hermans K., Vangeyte J., Tuyttens F.A.M. 2015. Behaviour, wounds, weight loss and adrenal weight of rabbit does as affected by semigroup housing. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 172: 44-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2015.09.003Baumans, V. 2005. Environmental enrichment for laboratory rodents and rabbits: requirements of rodents, rabbits, and research. Ilar Journal, 46: 162-170. https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.46.2.162Coureaud G., Fortun-Lamothe L., Rödel H.G., Monclús R., Schaal B. 2008. The developing rabbit: some data related to the behaviour, feeding and sensory capacities between birth and weaning. INRA-Prod. Anim. 21: 231-238. https://doi.org/10.20870/productions-animales.2008.21.3.3395Coureaud G., Rödel H.G., Le Normand B., Fortun-lamothe L. 2015. Habitat et Comportement. In: Gidenne T. (Eds), Le lapin de la biologie à l'élevage, Editions Quae, Versailles, France, pp. 107-136.Dixon L.M., Hardiman J.R., Cooper J.J. 2010. The effects of spatial restriction on the behavior of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 5: 302-308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2010.07.002EFSA AHAW Panel 2020. Scientific Opinion on the health and welfare of rabbits farmed in different production systems. EFSA Journal, 18: 5944. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2020.5944Farkas T.P., Dal Bosco A., Szendro Z., Filiou E., Matics Z., Odermatt M., Radnai I., Paci G., Gerencser Z. 2016. Production of Growing Rabbits in Large Pens with and without Multilevel Platforms. In Proc.: 11th World Rabbit Congress, 15-18 June, 2016. Qingdao, China. 1: 663-666.Gerencsér Z., Farkas T.P., Dal Bosco A., Filiou E., Matics Z., Odermatt M., Paci G., Szendrő Z. 2016. The usage of multilevel platforms in growing rabbits housed in large pens as affected by platfor mmaterial (wire-mesh vs plastic-mesh). In Proc. 11th World Rabbit Congress, 15-18 June, 2016. Qingdao, China. 1: 671-674.Hawkins P., Hubrecht R., Buckwell A., Cubitt S., Howard B., Jackson A., Poirier, G. M. 2008. Refining rabbit care. A resource for those working with rabbits in research. RSPCA, West Sussex and UFAW, Hertfordshire.Huang Y., Breda J., Savietto D., Debrusse A., Combes S., Fortun-Lamothe L. 2021. Part-time grouping of rabbit does in enriched housing: effects on performances, injury occurrence and enrichment use. Animal. in press.Jordan D., Gorjanc G., Kermauner A., Štuhec I. 2011. The behaviour of individually housed growing rabbits and the influence of gnawing sticks as environmental enrichment on daily rhythm of behavioural patterns duration. Acta Agriculturae Slovenica, 98: 51-61.Jordan D., Gorjanc G., Štuhec I. 2008. Wooden sticks as environmental enrichment: effect on fattening and carcass traits of individually housed growing rabbits. World Rabbit Sci., 16: 237-243. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2008.619Lang C., Hoy S. 2011. Investigations on the use of an elevated platform in group cages by growing rabbits. World Rabbit Sci., 19: 95-101. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2011.800Leach M.C., Allweiler S., Richardson C., Roughan J.V., Narbe R., Flecknell P.A. 2009. Behavioural effects of ovariohysterectomy and oral administration of meloxicam in laboratory housed rabbits. Res. Vet. Sci., 87: 336-347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2009.02.001Luzi F., Ferrante V., Heinzl E. Verga M. 2003. Effect of environmental enrichment on productive performance and welfare aspects in fattening rabbits. Ital. J. Anim. Sci., 2: 438-440.Matics Z., Farkas T. P., Dal Bosco A., Szendrő Z., Filiou E., Nagy I., Odermatt M., Paci G., Gerencsér Z. 2018. Comparison of pens without and with multilevel platforms for growing rabbits. Ital. J. Anim. Sci., 17: 469-476. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2017.1363640Mikó A., Matics Z., Gerencsér Z., Odermatt M., Radnai I., Nagy I., Szendrő K. Szendrő, Z. 2014. Performance and welfare of rabbit does in various caging systems. Animal, 8: 1146-1152. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731114001244Mirabito L., Buthon L., Cialdi G., Galliot P., Souchet C. 1999. Effet du logement des lapines en cages réhaussées avec plate-forme: Premiers resultats. In Proc.: 8èmes Journées de la Recherche Cunicole. 9-10 June, 1999. Paris, France. 1: 67-70.Mirabito L., Galliot P., Souchet C. 2000. Effect of different ways of cage enrichment on the productive traits and mortality of fattening rabbits. In Proc.: 7th World Rabbit Congress 4-7 July, 2000. Valencia, Spain. 1: 4-7.Monclús R., Rödel H. G. 2008. Different forms of vigilance in response to the presence of predators and conspecifics in a group-living mammal, the European Rabbit. Ethology, 114: 287-297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2007.01463.xMorton D.B., Jennings M., Batchelor G.R., Bell D., Birke L., Davies K., Eveleigh J.R., Gunn D., Heath M., Howard B., Koder P., Phillips J., Poole T., Sainsbury A.W., Sales G.D., Smith D.J.A., Stauffacher M., Turner R.J. 1993. Refinements in rabbit husbandry: Second report of the BVAAWF/FRAME/RSPCA/UFAW joint working group on refinement. Laboratory Animals, 27: 301-329. https://doi.org/10.1258/002367793780745633Podberscek A.L., Blackshaw J.K., Beattie A.W. 1991. The behaviour of group penned and individually caged laboratory rabbits. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 28: 353-363. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(91)90167-VPrincz Z., Orova Z., Nagy I., Jordan D., Štuhec I., Luzi F., Verga M. Szendrő Z. 2007. Application of gnawing sticks in rabbit housing. World Rabbit Sci., 15: 29-36. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2007.607Rommers J.M., Bracke M., Reuvekamp B., Gunnink H., de Jong I.C. 2014. Cage-enrichment: rabbit does prefer straw or a compressed wooden block. World Rabbit Sci., 22: 301-309. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2014.1353Rommers J., de Greef K. H. 2018. Are combi parks just as useful as regular parks for fatteners for part-time group housing of rabbit does? World Rabbit Sci., 26: 299-305. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2018.9587Rosell J.M., De la Fuente L.F. 2009. Effect of footrests on the incidence of ulcerative pododermatitis in domestic rabbit does. Animal Welfare, 18: 199-204.Rosell J.M., De la Fuente L. 2013. Assessing ulcerative pododermatitis of breeding rabbits. Animals, 3: 318-326. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3020318Szendrő Z., Matics Z., Odermatt M., Gerencsér Z., Nagy I., Szendrő K., Dalle Zotte A. 2012. Use of different areas of pen by growing rabbits depending on the elevated platforms' floor-type. 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Stimulate feed intake before weaning and control intake after weaning to optimise health and growth performance

[EN] Post-weaning feed restriction is a common practice in rabbit farming to reduce mortality, but results in lower growth performance and slaughter weights. This study aimed to assess the influence of 2 diets both rich in fibre and low in starch, with high or low digestible energy (DE) and digestible protein (DP) contents for a constant DP/DE ratio offered from 18 to 70 d of age, on the growth performance and health parameters of rabbits. Eight hundred rabbit kits were divided in 2 experimental groups differing in the feed offered from 18 to 70 d: a high concentrate diet (HC group; 10.37 MJ DE/kg DM and 102 g DP/kg DM) or low concentrate diet (LC group; 9.63 MJ DE/kg DM and 95 g DP/kg DM). Feed was offered ad libitum before weaning (35 d) and from 63 to 70 d, while feed offered from 35 to 63 d was controlled to obtain similar DE intake in both groups. Feed intake, animal weights and health status were recorded weekly. Mortality was recorded daily. Feed intake was similar in both groups before weaning (P=0.204), and consequently the DE intake was higher in the HC group compared to the LC group before weaning (3.91 vs. 3.39 MJ, respectively; P=0.017). Feed intake from 63 to 70 d was lower in the HC than in the LC group (229 vs. 239 g/d/kit, respectively; P<0.001).Total DE ingested after weaning was similar in both groups (45.44 MJ; P=0.143). Kits were heavier in the HC group throughout the study (P<0.05). A higher average daily gain during the periods of 18-28, 35-42 and 56-63 d was seen in the HC group (+8.1%, +16.8% and +4.5%, respectively; P<0.05). Mortality and morbidity rates were similar between groups throughout the study (P=1.0 and P=0.104, respectively). Our results suggest that when the feed intake after weaning is controlled, i) the feeding strategy before weaning determines the weight at weaning and at slaughter age; and ii) rabbits fed a diet more highly concentrated but rich in fibre increase their growth performance without negative consequences on their digestive health.The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical help of C. Bannelier, B. Gabinaud and M. Segura (INRA, UMR 1388 GenPhySE), and the assistance of the staff at the rabbit experimental unit (PECTOUL, Toulouse, France).Read, T.; Combes, S.; Gidenne, T.; Destombes, N.; Grenet, L.; Fortun-Lamothe, L. (2015). Stimulate feed intake before weaning and control intake after weaning to optimise health and growth performance. World Rabbit Science. 23(3):145-153. doi:10.4995/wrs.2015.3977SWORD14515323

Analyse comparée des écosystèmes digestifs du rumen de la vache et du caecum du lapin

Dans cette revue nous avons synthétisé les données obtenues dans notre équipe et celles de la bibliographie afin de contribuer à une meilleure connaissance de l’écologie des communautés bactériennes et archées des fermenteurs digestifs des mammifères herbivores. L’analyse a porté sur la comparaison des deux principales stratégies digestives rencontrées chez les mammifères herbivores actuels : un fermenteur en position proximale, le rumen, et un fermenteur en position distale, le caecum. Parmi les espèces d’intérêt agronomique,la vache et le lapin on été choisis comme animaux modèles. Après avoir rappelé les caractéristiques anatomiques et physicochimiques de ces fermenteurs digestifs, nous avons analysé les spécificités de leurs communautés procaryotiques liées à l’hôte, la variabilité individuelle, la structuration spatiale (inter- et intra- fermenteurs digestifs) et la dynamique temporelle (journalière et hebdomadaire) avec ou sans perturbation nutritionnelle induite

Ecofog - Gagner en compétitivité et réduire les impacts environnementaux de la filière foie gras

On a worldwide scale, France is the leading producer of foie gras. To maintain this leadership, the sector must remain competitive and control its production costs while meeting specific societal and environmental expectations such as preservation of product quality, respect for animal welfare or limited use of natural resources. The aim of the project was to develop innovative production systems that would limit the impacts of feed and its surrounding practices on the competitiveness of the sector and the environment. An experimental approach was associated with a multi-criteria sustainability assessment (farm level), complemented by an analysis of production cost (farm level) and environmental impacts (product level). Two domains were studied: one related to feed, and the other related to ambient conditions during breeding and force-feeding. Several issues have been identified to progress. Reducing the amount of food distributed (-10%) appears as a possible solution to reduce feeding costs during rearing. The use of sorghum is also of interest but its use should be limited to the rearing phase. Lastly, semi-open air system, compared to open-air system, helps to improve IC (Consumption Index) and reduces animal heterogeneity and mortality. This project also provided original results related to the understanding of mechanisms involved in body temperature regulation of ducks on the one hand and on the other hand to LCA results of different innovations. Lastly, it contributed to the creation of two tools: one to drill ventilation ducts and another to calculate production costs. The results were disseminated to the professionals throughout the project in order to make all data available.À l’échelle mondiale, la France est le premier producteur de foie gras. Afin de conserver ce leadership, la filière doit rester compétitive et maîtriser ses coûts de production tout en répondant à des attentes sociétales et environnementales spécifiques telles que la préservation de la qualité des produits, le respect du bien-être animal ou la gestion économe des ressources. Le projet ECOFOG avait pour objectif de développer des systèmes de production innovants, permettant de limiter l’impact de l’alimentation des canards et des pratiques qui l’entourent pour gagner en compétitivité de la filière et diminuer l’impact environnemental de la filière. La démarche expérimentale a été associée à une démarche d’évaluation multicritère de la durabilité à l’échelle de l’atelier, complétée par une analyse des coûts de production à l’échelle de l’atelier et des impacts environnementaux à l’échelle du produit. Deux axes d’étude ont en particulier été développés : l’un autour de l’aliment, et l’autre autour des conditions d’ambiance en élevage et en gavage.Plusieurs pistes ont été identifiées pour progresser. La réduction de la quantité d’aliment distribué (-10%) est une solution possible pour réduire les coûts d'alimentation. L’utilisation de sorgho présente par ailleurs un intérêt environnemental mais son utilisation devrait être limitée à la phase d’élevage. En termes de bâtiments enfin, le système semi plein-air, comparé au système plein-air, contribue à améliorer l’IC (Indice de Consommation) et réduit les écarts de poids entre les animaux et la mortalité. Ce projet a permis d’obtenir des résultats originaux sur les mécanismes impliqués dans la régulation de la température corporelle des canards. Il a aussi permis d’évaluer les impacts environnementaux de la production de foie gras, et d’analyser les conséquences des différents systèmes de production innovants sur les performances, les coûts et la durabilité de la production. Il a enfin contribué à la création de deux outils utiles pour la filière : un outil d’aide au perçage des gaines de ventilation en atelier de gavage et un outil de calcul du coût de production. Ces résultats ont été largement diffusés vers les professionnels afin de rendre l’ensemble de ces données disponibles

Diversity and Co-occurrence Pattern Analysis of Cecal Microbiota Establishment at the Onset of Solid Feeding in Young Rabbits

This study aimed to evaluate how the feeding strategy of rabbit kits at the onset of solid feed intake could affect ecological diversity and co-occurrence patterns of the cecal bacterial community. From birth to 18 days of age kits were exclusively milk-fed, and between 18 and 35 days the young rabbits also had access to solid feed. After weaning at (35 days), young rabbits were exclusively fed solid feed. Three experimental feeds were used: a high concentrate diet [H: 10.16 MJ digestible energy (DE)/kg and 15.3% crude protein (CP)], a low concentrate diet (L: 9.33 MJ DE/kg and 14.7% CP) and a reproductive female diet (R: 10.57 MJ DE/kg and 17.3% CP). The rabbit kits (n = 357) were divided into three groups, differing by the diet received during two periods: from 18 to 28 and from 28 to 49 days of age. In the groups LL and HH, rabbit kits were fed L or H diets, respectively, during both periods. Kits in the group RL received feeds R and L from 18 to 28 and 28 to 49 days of age, respectively. Cecal bacterial communities of 10 rabbits per group were carried out at 18, 28, 35, 43 and 49 days of age by MiSeq Illumina sequencing 16S rRNA encoding genes. Between 18 and 28 days of age, solid feed intake was higher in the group RL compared to the other two groups (+24%; P &lt; 0.01). Overall, 13.4% of the OTUs detected were present in the cecal ecosystem from 18 to 49 days old, whereas 17.4% were acquired with the onset of solid feeding and kept from 28 days on. Exclusive milk consumption constrains the bacterial community toward a similar structure but high phylogenetic beta-diversity. Introduction of solid feed induced a sharp change of microbial community structure and decreased phylogenetic diversity. A strong relationship in bacterial community network occurred only from 43 days on. Our feeding strategy at the onset of solid feed ingestion exhibited only a moderate effect on the microbial community structure (P = 0.072), although the LL group seemed to reach faster maturity compared to the two other groups

Clamp loader ATPases and the evolution of DNA replication machinery

Clamp loaders are pentameric ATPases of the AAA+ family that operate to ensure processive DNA replication. They do so by loading onto DNA the ring-shaped sliding clamps that tether the polymerase to the DNA. Structural and biochemical analysis of clamp loaders has shown how, despite differences in composition across different branches of life, all clamp loaders undergo the same concerted conformational transformations, which generate a binding surface for the open clamp and an internal spiral chamber into which the DNA at the replication fork can slide, triggering ATP hydrolysis, release of the clamp loader, and closure of the clamp round the DNA. We review here the current understanding of the clamp loader mechanism and discuss the implications of the differences between clamp loaders from the different branches of life