Scale Development and Validation: Methodology and Recommendations

The importance of valid and reliable data and its collection is fundamental to empirical research; however, there remain inconsistent approaches to creating robust scales capable of capturing both valid and reliable data, particularly within international agricultural and extension education contexts. Robust scale development consists of five areas for validation: content, response process, internal structure, external structure, and consequential. The purpose of this guide was to provide methodological recommendations to improve scale development rigor and adoption and to provide a set of functional principles to aid researchers and practitioners interested in capturing data through developed, or adapted, scales. Additionally, the information summarized provide a benchmark upon which to evaluate the rigor and validity of reported scale results. A consistent framework should provide a common lexicon upon which to examine scales and associated results. Proper scale development and validation will help ensure research findings accurately describe intended underlying concepts, particularly within an international agricultural and extension education context

Identifying Levels of Engagement in Local Food Systems by Generation in the State of Georgia, U.S.A.

Local food systems are an emerging way for communities to build vibrant economies, improve health outcomes, and limit their environmental impact. Studies have shown local food engagement differs significantly between generations; however, what remains unclear is how generations’ perceptions and engagement compare to each other so the agricultural community can most effectively communicate about local food systems. Leveraging audience segmentation theory from social marketing, this study sought to address how the five living generations in the United States – Generation Z, Millennials, Generation X, Baby Boomers, and The Silent Generation – perceived and engaged with local food systems. To address this question, a non-probability opt-in sampling of 863 adults in the state of Georgia was used. Each participant was asked four questions pertaining to different aspects of local food systems – the purchase of local foods from grocery stores, use of local food markets, participation in local food events, and level of engagement with local food related media. Millennials and Generation X’ers expressed significantly higher levels of engagement with local food systems when compared to Baby Boomers and The Silent Generation, this was not observed between Generation Z and any other group. While Millennials and X’ers engaged at higher levels, significant opportunities remain for engagement through generation-specific media to turn the universal tepid interest in local food systems into action. Future research should seek to identify the relationship between generational media preferences and how effective they are at transforming interest in local food systems into action

Minimizing Disparities and Developing Support by Identifying Differences in Confidence and Knowledge Related to Water Issues

Extension educators face challenges as they strive to keep up with critical issues in their communities, such as those surrounding water. A growing population and a diminishing water supply necessitate that Florida residents become more knowledgeable about water issues. We conducted research to determine how confident both the general public and decision makers are in Florida\u27s water resources and to assess how aware both groups are of the state\u27s water policies. The results revealed significant statistical differences between the two groups in almost every category analyzed. We propose relevant ways to engage in targeted programming that will bridge the gap between the general public and decision makers

Identifying Audience Needs to Effectively Communicate about the Cost of Implementing Sustainable Farming Practices

Water is a complex issue across the globe and is largely affected by a growing world population and higher standard of living. Within the United States, the security of the freshwater supply is an increasing concern and water resource protection may increase if residents are knowledgeable about the issue. Sustainable farming systems will lessen the impact of agriculture on water resources but may cost the end user more to ensure sustainability. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if rural, urban, and suburban audiences differ in their willingness to pay for sustainable farming practices that protect water resources so that communication messages can be tailored. Audience segmentation was used to guide the study. Data were collected with a researcher-developed online survey instrument. The results found water consumers’ overall willingness to pay for more sustainable farming practices was fairly high. Statistically significant differences were found between urban and rural residents’ willingness to pay for sustainable farming practices. Thus, the findings imply residents with differing rurality need tailored communication messages delivered through specific channels

Using Public Opinions of Water Quality to Provide Direction for Extension

Extension educators can help the public learn about critical issues that contribute to existing problems in communities. Water is just such an issue in Florida—in fact, water is the top issue in Florida. The purpose of the study reported in this article was to identify Florida residents\u27 opinions about clean water and their preferred modes of learning about water quality. Findings relate to how information about water quality should be transferred to the public and can guide the development of Extension programming

A National Examination of Extension Professionals’ Use of Evaluation: Does Intended Use Improve Effort?

As state and federal budgets tighten, Extension must be accountable for the use of public funds if it wants to maintain current funding levels. While those working within Extension know the long-term successes of Extension programs, data detailing these are limited. High quality evaluations must be developed to collect the data needed to exhibit public value. One way to encourage the collection of rigorous data is through the use of evaluation. Evaluation use creates an environment that encourages organizational thinking that can result in accountability reports adequate for funding decisions. This study examined how Extension professionals’ engagement in evaluation is related to their perceptions of personal and organizational evaluation use. The findings show that a substantial percentage of Extension professionals are doing just enough evaluation to complete mandatory reports. The results of the study also showed that Extension professionals valued personal use of evaluation data over the organizational use. Extension professionals were more likely to conduct in-depth evaluations when it was used to inform stakeholders or for future programmatic planning than for accountability purposes. Professional development efforts should target the use of evaluation for personal programmatic improvement rather than accountability to encourage participation and evaluation competency development

Understanding Public Engagement in Water Conservation Behaviors and Knowledge of Water Policy: Promising Hints for Extension

Sustaining water resources is a primary issue facing Florida Extension. The study reported here identified how experience with water issues and familiarity with water policies affected individuals\u27 engagement in water conservation behaviors. A public opinion survey was conducted online to capture Florida residents\u27 responses. The findings indicated experience with water issues and familiarity with water policies were predictors of individuals\u27 engagement in civic water conservation behaviors. Given this, Extension educators developing programs and educational materials about water conservation behaviors should cover information related to water policies because participants will be more inclined to engage if they are familiar with policies

Identifying Invasive Species Educational Needs in Florida: Opportunities for Extension

Florida\u27s ecology has been adversely affected by invasive species. In Florida, a study was conducted to explore opportunities for Extension educators to contribute to combating the issue of invasive species. Florida residents\u27 responses were captured through the use of an online public opinion survey. The findings revealed a need for invasive species education and respondent interest in learning about invasive species. Potential communication strategies Extension educators should use for invasive species programming also are discussed

Measuring the Aggregated Public Value of Extension

Extension program participants tell story after story of the impact of Cooperative Extension on their lives, their families, and their businesses. Despite huge amounts of qualitative data, very little quantitative data exist showing the aggregated public value of Extension programs—especially across program areas. The lack of data leaves Extension administrators high and dry when they are asked to show public value, a circumstance sometimes resulting in reductions in human and financial resources. A simple, yet powerful Extension public value instrument was developed and used in Georgia along with analysis methods designed to showcase the short-, medium-, and long-term impacts of Extension programs

Communication Channel Preferences: A Descriptive Audience Segmentation Evaluation

For over 70 years the use of opinion leaders in a two-step communication process has been employed and validated. However, despite the accepted importance of communicating with opinion leaders as a means to cascade information to opinion leaders’ networks of influence there have been few empirical studies specifically examining agricultural and natural resource opinion leader communication channel preferences, particularly from an audience segmentation perspective. The results reported in the study capitalize on previous research data examined from a unique perspective. Specifically, communication channel preferences were analyzed according to opinion leader self-reported demographic categories serving as audience segments. Associations between sex, age, level of employment, level of education and geographical region and communication channel preference were analyzed. The results of the study are descriptive and foundational in nature. Overall, the results indicate a dedicated web page or blog is the most preferred communication channel across all audience segments and conference calls are the least preferred communication channel across the majority of audience segments. The Facebook group communication channel had the most variability between audience segments and the LinkedIn group communicational channel had the largest observed effect sizes among audience segments