Hvordan forbereder matprodusenter seg på klimakrisen og hvilke tiltak benyttes for å ivareta matsikkerheten?

Bakgrunn: FNs klimapanel har konstatert at den økte globale temperaturstigningen truer verdens matsikkerhet (IPCC, 2019). Klimaendringene er økene. Dette kommer tydelig frem gjennom nyhetsbildet som rapporterer om ekstremvær som treffer hyppigere, hetebølger som blir varmere og ekstremnedbør som treffer kraftigere (Miljødirektoratet, 2021). Disse faktorene er med på å påvirke jordbruket negativt med nedgang i avlinger som et mulig scenario. På grunn av klimaendringer, press på naturressurser, samt befolkningsvekst, har matsikkerheten fått økt oppmerksomhet. Myndigheter og verdenssamfunnet har blitt enige om tiltak for å redusere klimautslippene som påvirker matsikkerheten, men det finnes få konkrete tiltak for å sikre matproduksjonen i fremtiden. Hensikt og problemstilling: Problemstillingen for denne oppgaven er derfor «hvordan forbereder matprodusenter seg på klimakrisen og hvilke tiltak benytter de for å ivareta matsikkerheten»? Metode: Problemstillingen ble studert ved å kartlegge hvordan økologiske grossister i Europa vurderte klimaendringer som risiko og om de hadde beredskapsplaner for å ivareta matsikkerheten. Dette ble gjort gjennom en kvantitativ undersøkelse, hvor spørreskjema ble utarbeidet og distribuert til alle leverandører den økologiske grossisten Norganic samarbeider med. Resultat: Resultatene var tydelige; alle Europeiske leverandører bortsett fra de nordiske landene, vurderte klimaendringer som risikofylt for egen matproduksjon. På tross av dette, hadde bare halvparten av dem risikovurdert klimaendringenes effekt på produksjonen. Da de ble spurt om de hadde utarbeidet beredskapsplaner, svarte bare 13% av leverandørene at de hadde utarbeidet beredskapsplaner innenfor klimaendringer. Konklusjon: Dette viser at et mindretall leverandører i Europa har forberedt seg på klimaendringene og funnet tiltak for å ivareta matsikkerheten. Flere av leverandørene skylder dette på manglende kunnskap for hvordan slikt arbeid skal gjennomføres. Andre forventer at myndighetene skal komme med retningslinjer for hvordan klimarelatert risikoarbeid skal utarbeides. Mer forskning trengs for å øke kunnskapen, men også komme med retningslinjer for hvordan klimarelatert risiko skal vurderes og tiltak utarbeides

Vertical Moist Thermodynamic Structure and Spatial–Temporal Evolution of the MJO in AIRS Observations

The atmospheric moisture and temperature profiles from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS)/Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit on the NASA Aqua mission, in combination with the precipitation from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), are employed to study the vertical moist thermodynamic structure and spatial–temporal evolution of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). The AIRS data indicate that, in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific, the temperature anomaly exhibits a trimodal vertical structure: a warm (cold) anomaly in the free troposphere (800–250 hPa) and a cold (warm) anomaly near the tropopause (above 250 hPa) and in the lower troposphere (below 800 hPa) associated with enhanced (suppressed) convection. The AIRS moisture anomaly also shows markedly different vertical structures as a function of longitude and the strength of convection anomaly. Most significantly, the AIRS data demonstrate that, over the Indian Ocean and western Pacific, the enhanced (suppressed) convection is generally preceded in both time and space by a low-level warm and moist (cold and dry) anomaly and followed by a low-level cold and dry (warm and moist) anomaly. The MJO vertical moist thermodynamic structure from the AIRS data is in general agreement, particularly in the free troposphere, with previous studies based on global reanalysis and limited radiosonde data. However, major differences in the lower-troposphere moisture and temperature structure between the AIRS observations and the NCEP reanalysis are found over the Indian and Pacific Oceans, where there are very few conventional data to constrain the reanalysis. Specifically, the anomalous lower-troposphere temperature structure is much less well defined in NCEP than in AIRS for the western Pacific, and even has the opposite sign anomalies compared to AIRS relative to the wet/dry phase of the MJO in the Indian Ocean. Moreover, there are well-defined eastward-tilting variations of moisture with height in AIRS over the central and eastern Pacific that are less well defined, and in some cases absent, in NCEP. In addition, the correlation between MJO-related midtropospheric water vapor anomalies and TRMM precipitation anomalies is considerably more robust in AIRS than in NCEP, especially over the Indian Ocean. Overall, the AIRS results are quite consistent with those predicted by the frictional Kelvin–Rossby wave/conditional instability of the second kind (CISK) theory for the MJO

Millimeter-wave array receivers for remote sensing

Recent developments in millimeter-wave receiver have enabled new remote sensing capabilities. MMIC circuits operating at frequencies as high as 200 GHz have enabled low-cost mass producible integrated receivers suitable for array applications. We will describe several ground-based demonstrations of this technology including development of integrated spectral line receivers for atmospheric remote sensing, a synthetic thinned aperture radiometer for atmospheric sounding and imaging and polarimetric array radiometers for astrophysics applications

Millimeter-wave array receivers for remote sensing

Recent developments in millimeter-wave receiver have enabled new remote sensing capabilities. MMIC circuits operating at frequencies as high as 200 GHz have enabled low-cost mass producible integrated receivers suitable for array applications. We will describe several ground-based demonstrations of this technology including development of integrated spectral line receivers for atmospheric remote sensing, a synthetic thinned aperture radiometer for atmospheric sounding and imaging and polarimetric array radiometers for astrophysics applications

Understanding the Relationships Between Lightning, Cloud Microphysics, and Airborne Radar-derived Storm Structure During Hurricane Karl (2010)

This study explores relationships between lightning, cloud microphysics, and tropical cyclone (TC) storm structure in Hurricane Karl (16 September 2010) using data collected by the NASA DC-8 and Global Hawk (GH) aircraft during NASA's Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes (GRIP) experiment. The research capitalizes on the unique opportunity provided by GRIP to synthesize multiple datasets from two aircraft and analyze the microphysical and kinematic properties of an electrified TC. Five coordinated flight legs through Karl by the DC-8 and GH are investigated, focusing on the inner-core region (within 50km of the storm center) where the lightning was concentrated and the aircraft were well coordinated. GRIP datasets are used to compare properties of electrified and nonelectrified inner-core regions that are related to the noninductive charging mechanism, which is widely accepted to explain the observed electric fields within thunderstorms. Three common characteristics of Karl's electrified regions are identified: 1) strong updrafts of 10-20ms21, 2) deep mixed-phase layers indicated by reflectivities.30 dBZ extending several kilometers above the freezing level, and 3) microphysical environments consisting of graupel, very small ice particles, and the inferred presence of supercooled water. These characteristics describe an environment favorable for in situ noninductive charging and, hence, TC electrification. The electrified regions in Karl's inner core are attributable to a microphysical environment that was conducive to electrification because of occasional, strong convective updrafts in the eyewall

Millimeter-wave array receivers for remote sensing

Recent developments in millimeter-wave receiver have enabled new remote sensing capabilities. MMIC circuits operating at frequencies as high as 200 GHz have enabled low-cost mass producible integrated receivers suitable for array applications. We will describe several ground-based demonstrations of this technology including development of integrated spectral line receivers for atmospheric remote sensing, a synthetic thinned aperture radiometer for atmospheric sounding and imaging and polarimetric array radiometers for astrophysics applications

Miniature Low-Noise G-Band I-Q Receiver

Weather forecasting, hurricane tracking, and atmospheric science applications depend on humidity sounding of atmosphere. Current instruments provide these measurements from groundbased, airborne, and low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites by measuring radiometric temperature on the flanks of the 183-GHz water vapor line. Miniature, low-noise receivers have been designed that will enable these measurements from a geostationary, thinned array sounder, which is based on hundreds of low-noise receivers that convert the 180-GHz signal directly to baseband in-phase and in-quadrature signals for digitization and correlation. The developed receivers provide a noise temperature of 450 K from 165 to 183 GHz (NF = 4.1 dB), and have a mass of 3 g while consuming 24 mW of power. These are the most sensitive broadband I-Q receivers at this frequency range that operate at room temperature, and are significantly lower in mass and power consumption than previously reported receivers

Single-Antenna Temperature- and Humidity-Sounding Microwave Receiver

For humidity and temperature sounding of Earth s atmosphere, a single-antenna/LNA (low-noise amplifier) is needed in place of two separate antennas for the two frequency bands. This results in significant mass and power savings for GeoSTAR that is comprised of hundreds of antennas per frequency channel. Furthermore, spatial anti-aliasing would reduce the number of horns. An anti-aliasing horn antenna will enable focusing the instrument field of view to the hurricane corridor by reducing spatial aliasing, and thus reduce the number of required horns by up to 50 percent. The single antenna/receiver assembly was designed and fabricated by a commercial vendor. The 118 183-GHz horn is based upon a profiled, smooth-wall design, and the OMT (orthomode transducer) on a quad-ridge design. At the input end, the OMT presents four ver y closely spaced ridges [0.0007 in. (18 m)]. The fabricated assembly contains a single horn antenna and low-noise broadband receiver front-end assembly for passive remote sensing of both temperature and humidity profiles in the Earth s atmosphere at 118 and 183 GHz. The wideband feed with dual polarization capability is the first broadband low noise MMIC receiver with the 118 to 183 GHz bandwidth. This technology will significantly reduce PATH/GeoSTAR mass and power while maintaining 90 percent of the measurement capabilities. This is required for a Mission-of-Opportunity on NOAA s GOES-R satellite now being developed, which in turn will make it possible to implement a Decadal-Survey mission for a fraction of the cost and much sooner than would otherwise be possible

High-Altitude MMIC Sounding Radiometer for the Global Hawk Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Microwave imaging radiometers operating in the 50-183 GHz range for retrieving atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiles from airborne platforms have been limited in the spatial scales of atmospheric structures that are resolved not because of antenna aperture size, but because of high receiver noise masking the small variations that occur on small spatial scales. Atmospheric variability on short spatial and temporal scales (second/ km scale) is completely unresolved by existing microwave profilers. The solution was to integrate JPL-designed, high-frequency, low-noise-amplifier (LNA) technology into the High-Altitude MMIC Sounding Radiometer (HAMSR), which is an airborne microwave sounding radiometer, to lower the system noise by an order of magnitude to enable the instrument to resolve atmospheric variability on small spatial and temporal scales. HAMSR has eight sounding channels near the 60-GHz oxygen line complex, ten channels near the 118.75-GHz oxygen line, and seven channels near the 183.31-GHz water vapor line. The HAMSR receiver system consists of three heterodyne spectrometers covering the three bands. The antenna system consists of two back-to-back reflectors that rotate together at a programmable scan rate via a stepper motor. A single full rotation includes the swath below the aircraft followed by observations of ambient (roughly 0 C in flight) and heated (70 C) blackbody calibration targets located at the top of the rotation. A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is used to read the digitized radiometer counts and receive the reflector position from the scan motor encoder, which are then sent to a microprocessor and packed into data files. The microprocessor additionally reads telemetry data from 40 onboard housekeeping channels (containing instrument temperatures), and receives packets from an onboard navigation unit, which provides GPS time and position as well as independent attitude information (e.g., heading, roll, pitch, and yaw). The raw data files are accessed through an Ethernet port. The HAMSR data rate is relatively low at 75 kbps, allowing for real-time access over the Global Hawk high-data-rate downlink. Once on the ground, the raw data are unpacked and processed through two levels of processing. The Level 1 product contains geo-located, time-stamped, calibrated brightness temperatures for the Earth scan. These data are then input to a lD variational retrieval algorithm to produce temperature, water vapor, and cloud liquid water profiles, as well as several derived products such as potential temperature and relative humidity

Initial Processing of Infrared Spectral Data

The Atmospheric Infrared Spectrometer (AIRS) Science Processing System is a collection of computer programs, denoted product generation executives (PGEs), for processing the readings of the AIRS suite of infrared and microwave instruments orbiting the Earth aboard NASA's Aqua spacecraft. Following from level 0 (representing raw AIRS data), the PGEs and their data products are denoted by alphanumeric labels (1A, 1B, and 2) that signify the successive stages of processing. Once level-0 data have been received, the level-1A PGEs begin processing, performing such basic housekeeping tasks as ensuring that all the Level-0 data are present and ordering the data according to observation times. The level-1A PGEs then perform geolocation-refinement calculations and conversions of raw data numbers to engineering units. Finally, the level-1A data are grouped into packages, denoted granules, each of which contain the data from a six-minute observation period. The granules are forwarded, along with calibration data, to the Level-1B PGEs for processing into calibrated, geolocated radiance products. The Level-2 PGEs, which are not yet operational, are intended to process the level-1B data into temperature and humidity profiles, and other geophysical properties