Fairness in Algorithmic Decision Making: An Excursion Through the Lens of Causality

As virtually all aspects of our lives are increasingly impacted by algorithmic decision making systems, it is incumbent upon us as a society to ensure such systems do not become instruments of unfair discrimination on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion, etc. We consider the problem of determining whether the decisions made by such systems are discriminatory, through the lens of causal models. We introduce two definitions of group fairness grounded in causality: fair on average causal effect (FACE), and fair on average causal effect on the treated (FACT). We use the Rubin-Neyman potential outcomes framework for the analysis of cause-effect relationships to robustly estimate FACE and FACT. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed approach on synthetic data. Our analyses of two real-world data sets, the Adult income data set from the UCI repository (with gender as the protected attribute), and the NYC Stop and Frisk data set (with race as the protected attribute), show that the evidence of discrimination obtained by FACE and FACT, or lack thereof, is often in agreement with the findings from other studies. We further show that FACT, being somewhat more nuanced compared to FACE, can yield findings of discrimination that differ from those obtained using FACE.Comment: 7 pages, 2 figures, 2 tables.To appear in Proceedings of the International Conference on World Wide Web (WWW), 201

The Effect Of Interface Type On Visual Error Checking Behavior

During data entry tasks, small errors can result in catastrophe, for instance adding an extra zero to a drug dose when programming an infusion in a hospital. For this reason understanding users’ error checking behavior is highly important. One aspect that can affect error checking is the interface that a user must interact with to enter data. Often user interaction with interfaces is evaluated based on speed or error rate. In this paper, in addition to this, we also explore how different types of interface can affect a user’s error checking behavior in a multitasking environment. We show that a fast to use and familiar interface discourages users from carrying out thorough visual checking in a number transcription task. We also found that having participants perform an additional secondary task while doing the number entry task made participants less likely to check the inputted numbers for errors

Combining cellular automata and local binary patterns for copy-move forgery detection

Detection of duplicated regions in digital images has been a highly investigated field in recent years since the editing of digital images has been notably simplified by the development of advanced image processing tools. In this paper, we present a new method that combines Cellular Automata (CA) and Local Binary Patterns (LBP) to extract feature vectors for the purpose of detection of duplicated regions. The combination of CA and LBP allows a simple and reduced description of texture in the form of CA rules that represents local changes in pixel luminance values. The importance of CA lies in the fact that a very simple set of rules can be used to describe complex textures, while LBP, applied locally, allows efficient binary representation. CA rules are formed on a circular neighborhood, resulting in insensitivity to rotation of duplicated regions. Additionally, a new search method is applied to select the nearest neighbors and determine duplicated blocks. In comparison with similar methods, the proposed method showed good performance in the case of plain/multiple copy-move forgeries and rotation/scaling of duplicated regions, as well as robustness to post-processing methods such as blurring, addition of noise and JPEG compression. An important advantage of the proposed method is its low computational complexity and simplicity of its feature vector representation

Ancestry and dental development: A geographic and genetic perspective

Objective: In this study, we investigated the influence of ancestry on dental development in the Generation R Study. Methods: Information on geographic ancestry was available in 3,600 children (1,810 boys and 1,790 girls, mean age 9.81±0.35 years) and information about genetic ancestry was available in 2,786 children (1,387 boys and 1,399 girls, mean age 9.82±0.34 years). Dental development was assessed in all children using the Demirjian method. The associations of geographic ancestry (Cape Verdean, Moroccan, Turkish, Dutch Antillean, Surinamese Creole and Surinamese Hindustani vs Dutch as the reference group) and genetic content of ancestry (European, African or Asian) with dental development was analyzed using linear regression models. Results: In a geographic perspective of ancestry, Moroccan (β=0.18; 95% CI: 0.07, 0.28), Turkish (β=0.22; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.32), Dutch Antillean (β=0.27; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.41), and Surinamese Creole (β=0.16; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.30) preceded Dutch children in dental development. Moreover, in a genetic perspective of ancestry, a higher proportion of European ancestry was associated with decelerated dental development (β=-0.32; 95% CI: -.44, -.20). In contrast, a higher proportion of African ancestry (β=0.29; 95% CI: 0.16, 0.43) and a higher proportion of Asian ancestry (β=0.28; 95% CI: 0.09, 0.48) were associated with accelerated dental development. When investigating only European children, these effect estimates increased to twice as large in absolute value. Conclusion: Based on a geographic and genetic perspective, differences in dental development exist in a population of heterogeneous ancestry and should be considered when describing the physiological growth in children

Assessing anesthetic activity through modulation of the membrane dipole potential

There is great individual variation in response to general anaesthetics leading to difficulties in optimal dosing and sometimes even accidental awareness during general anaesthesia (AAGA). AAGA is a rare but potentially devastating complication affecting between 0.1% and 2% of patients undergoing surgery. The development of novel, personalised screening techniques to accurately predict a patient's response to GA and the risk of AAGA remains an unmet clinical need. In the present study we demonstrate the principle of using a fluorescent reporter of the membrane dipole potential, di-8-ANEPPs, as a novel method to monitor anaesthetic activity using a well-described inducer/non-inducer pair. The membrane dipole potential has previously been suggested to contribute a novel mechanism of anaesthetic action (Qin et al 1995). We show the fluorescence ratio of di-8-ANEPPs changed in response to physiological concentrations of the anaesthetic 1-chloro-1,2,2-trifluorocyclobutane (F3) but not the structurally similar non-inducer 1,2-dichlorohexafluorocyclobutane (F6) to artificial membranes and in vitro retinal cell systems. Modulation of the membrane dipole provides an explanation to overcome limitations associated with alternative membrane-mediated mechanisms of GA action. Furthermore, by combining this technique with non-invasive retinal imaging technologies, we propose this technique could provide a novel and non-invasive technique to monitor GA susceptibility and identify patients at risk of AAGA

The association between reallocations of time and health using compositional data analysis: a systematic scoping review with an interactive data exploration interface

Background: How time is allocated influences health. However, any increase in time allocated to one behaviour must be offset by a decrease in others. Recently, studies have used compositional data analysis (CoDA) to estimate the associations with health when reallocating time between different behaviours. The aim of this scoping review was to provide an overview of studies that have used CoDA to model how reallocating time between different time-use components is associated with health. Methods: A systematic search of four electronic databases (MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, SPORTDiscus) was conducted in October 2022. Studies were eligible if they used CoDA to examine the associations of time reallocations and health. Reallocations were considered between movement behaviours (sedentary behaviour (SB), light physical activity (LPA), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)) or various activities of daily living (screen time, work, household chores etc.). The review considered all populations, including clinical populations, as well as all health-related outcomes. Results: One hundred and three studies were included. Adiposity was the most commonly studied health outcome (n = 41). Most studies (n = 75) reported reallocations amongst daily sleep, SB, LPA and MVPA. While other studies reported reallocations amongst sub-compositions of these (work MVPA vs. leisure MVPA), activity types determined by recall (screen time, household chores, passive transport etc.) or bouted behaviours (short vs. long bouts of SB). In general, when considering cross-sectional results, reallocating time to MVPA from any behaviour(s) was favourably associated with health and reallocating time away from MVPA to any behaviour(s) was unfavourably associated with health. Some beneficial associations were seen when reallocating time from SB to both LPA and sleep; however, the strength of the association was much lower than for any reallocations involving MVPA. However, there were many null findings. Notably, most of the longitudinal studies found no associations between reallocations of time and health. Some evidence also suggested the context of behaviours was important, with reallocations of leisure time toward MVPA having a stronger favourable association for health than reallocating work time towards MVPA. Conclusions: Evidence suggests that reallocating time towards MVPA from any behaviour(s) has the strongest favourable association with health, and reallocating time away from MVPA toward any behaviour(s) has the strongest unfavourable association with health. Future studies should use longitudinal and experimental study designs, and for a wider range of outcomes

Tissue Microenvironments Define and Get Reinforced by Macrophage Phenotypes in Homeostasis or during Inflammation, Repair and Fibrosis

Current macrophage phenotype classifications are based on distinct in vitro culture conditions that do not adequately mirror complex tissue environments. In vivo monocyte progenitors populate all tissues for immune surveillance which supports the maintenance of homeostasis as well as regaining homeostasis after injury. Here we propose to classify macrophage phenotypes according to prototypical tissue environments, e.g. as they occur during homeostasis as well as during the different phases of (dermal) wound healing. In tissue necrosis and/or infection, damage- and/or pathogen-associated molecular patterns induce proinflammatory macrophages by Toll-like receptors or inflammasomes. Such classically activated macrophages contribute to further tissue inflammation and damage. Apoptotic cells and antiinflammatory cytokines dominate in postinflammatory tissues which induce macrophages to produce more antiinflammatory mediators. Similarly, tumor-associated macrophages also confer immunosuppression in tumor stroma. Insufficient parenchymal healing despite abundant growth factors pushes macrophages to gain a profibrotic phenotype and promote fibrocyte recruitment which both enforce tissue scarring. Ischemic scars are largely devoid of cytokines and growth factors so that fibrolytic macrophages that predominantly secrete proteases digest the excess extracellular matrix. Together, macrophages stabilize their surrounding tissue microenvironments by adapting different phenotypes as feed-forward mechanisms to maintain tissue homeostasis or regain it following injury. Furthermore, macrophage heterogeneity in healthy or injured tissues mirrors spatial and temporal differences in microenvironments during the various stages of tissue injury and repair. Copyright (C) 2012 S. Karger AG, Base

An Open Source Framework for Standardized Comparisons of Face Recognition Algorithms

In this paper we introduce the facereclib, the first software library that allows to compare a variety of face recognition algorithms on most of the known facial image databases and that permits rapid prototyping of novel ideas and testing of meta-parameters of face recognition algorithms. The facereclib is built on the open source signal processing and machine learning library Bob. It uses well-specified face recognition protocols to ensure that results are comparable and reproducible. We show that the face recognition algorithms implemented in Bob as well as third party face recognition libraries can be used to run face recognition experiments within the framework of the facereclib. As a proof of concept, we execute four different state-of-the-art face recognition algorithms: local Gabor binary pattern histogram sequences (LGBPHS), Gabor graph comparisons with a Gabor phase based similarity measure, inter-session variability modeling (ISV) of DCT block features, and the linear discriminant analysis on two different color channels (LDA-IR) on two different databases: The Good, The Bad, & The Ugly, and the BANCA database, in all cases using their fixed protocols. The results show that there is not one face recognition algorithm that outperforms all others, but rather that the results are strongly dependent on the employed database

'It's Reducing a Human Being to a Percentage'; Perceptions of Justice in Algorithmic Decisions

Data-driven decision-making consequential to individuals raises important questions of accountability and justice. Indeed, European law provides individuals limited rights to 'meaningful information about the logic' behind significant, autonomous decisions such as loan approvals, insurance quotes, and CV filtering. We undertake three experimental studies examining people's perceptions of justice in algorithmic decision-making under different scenarios and explanation styles. Dimensions of justice previously observed in response to human decision-making appear similarly engaged in response to algorithmic decisions. Qualitative analysis identified several concerns and heuristics involved in justice perceptions including arbitrariness, generalisation, and (in)dignity. Quantitative analysis indicates that explanation styles primarily matter to justice perceptions only when subjects are exposed to multiple different styles---under repeated exposure of one style, scenario effects obscure any explanation effects. Our results suggests there may be no 'best' approach to explaining algorithmic decisions, and that reflection on their automated nature both implicates and mitigates justice dimensions.Comment: 14 pages, 3 figures, ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI'18), April 21--26, Montreal, Canad

Reactive oxygen species and small-conductance calcium-dependent potassium channels are key mediators of inflammation-induced hypotension and shock

Septic shock is associated with life-threatening vasodilation and hypotension. To cause vasodilation, vascular endothelium may release nitric oxide (NO), prostacyclin (PGI2), and the elusive endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF). Although NO is critical in controlling vascular tone, inhibiting NO in septic shock does not improve outcome, on the contrary, precipitating the search for alternative therapeutic targets. Using a hyperacute tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced shock model in mice, we found that shock can develop independently of the known vasodilators NO, cGMP, PGI2, or epoxyeicosatrienoic acids. However, the antioxidant tempol efficiently prevented hypotension, bradycardia, hypothermia, and mortality, indicating the decisive involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in these phenomena. Also, in classical TNF or lipopolysaccharide-induced shock models, tempol protected significantly. Experiments with (cell-permeable) superoxide dismutase or catalase, N-acetylcysteine and apocynin suggest that the ROS-dependent shock depends on intracellular \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$^\bullet {\hbox{OH}}$$\end{document} radicals. Potassium channels activated by ATP (KATP) or calcium (KCa) are important mediators of vascular relaxation. While NO and PGI2-induced vasodilation involves KATP and large-conductance BKCa channels, small-conductance SKCa channels mediate vasodilation induced by EDHF. Interestingly, also SKCa inhibition completely prevented the ROS-dependent shock. Our data thus indicate that intracellular \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$^\bullet {\hbox{OH}}$$\end{document} and SKCa channels represent interesting new therapeutic targets for inflammatory shock. Moreover, they may also explain why antioxidants other than tempol fail to provide survival benefit during shock