Exploring the linkages between biodiversity conservation and ecotourism in protected areas

The prospect of using ecotourism to add value to conservation initiatives has frequently been stated. However, there is a general lack of information on the costs and benefits of biodiversity and its management, and how this can be influenced by the ecotourism industry. This study seeks to explore the value of biodiversity from the perspective of ecotourism in a hierarchical series of studies that move from the biome-level perspective down to the value of juveniles in ecotourism. Ecotourism plays a significant role in the establishment and management of Private Protected Areas (PPAs) and hence the opportunity to be added to the conservation estate. The financial opportunity to be found in ‘big five’ areas had led to an uneven biome coverage of PPAs which has resulted in the over-representation of certain areas and a skewed contribution towards national conservation targets. The landscape-use of PPAs have indicated that ecotourism operators are largely driven to achieve successful game-viewing sightings which has influenced management and affected the landscape use of PPAs, the stocking rate of species, the introduction of extralimital species, and management of flagship species. These management decisions are based on anecdotal sources and have been made at the expense of biodiversity and therefore apparent conflict exists between ecotourism and conservation objectives. This is based on lack of information: ecotourism operators, despite the large area they protect, have not realised their potential to contribute to conservation. It is therefore important to develop policy and incentives to motivate the establishment of PPAs in areas of high conservation significance in order to contribute to national conservation targets. Ecotourism should be used as a solution to provide important insights into tourist preferences which contribute to the larger debate of how to establish a balance between managing animal populations to ensure tourist satisfaction while supporting conservation. To ensure sustainability of PPAs, it is strongly recommended to manage PPAs more intensively with regards to PPA size, species stocking rates and landscape use. The presence of juveniles at an animal sighting significantly contributes to tourist satisfaction which suggests that the loss of juveniles may reduce the attraction. This is used to provide recommendations that using contraception to control elephant population numbers should be applied with caution as a management tool as it may be counterproductive by negatively impacting ecotourism. The findings from this study not only contribute to the conservation of biodiversity through the use of ecotourism, but will also ensure sustainability of the ecotourism industry and build capacity for sustainable living

Exploring the linkages between biodiversity conservation and ecotourism in protected areas

The prospect of using ecotourism to add value to conservation initiatives has frequently been stated. However, there is a general lack of information on the costs and benefits of biodiversity and its management, and how this can be influenced by the ecotourism industry. This study seeks to explore the value of biodiversity from the perspective of ecotourism in a hierarchical series of studies that move from the biome-level perspective down to the value of juveniles in ecotourism. Ecotourism plays a significant role in the establishment and management of Private Protected Areas (PPAs) and hence the opportunity to be added to the conservation estate. The financial opportunity to be found in ‘big five’ areas had led to an uneven biome coverage of PPAs which has resulted in the over-representation of certain areas and a skewed contribution towards national conservation targets. The landscape-use of PPAs have indicated that ecotourism operators are largely driven to achieve successful game-viewing sightings which has influenced management and affected the landscape use of PPAs, the stocking rate of species, the introduction of extralimital species, and management of flagship species. These management decisions are based on anecdotal sources and have been made at the expense of biodiversity and therefore apparent conflict exists between ecotourism and conservation objectives. This is based on lack of information: ecotourism operators, despite the large area they protect, have not realised their potential to contribute to conservation. It is therefore important to develop policy and incentives to motivate the establishment of PPAs in areas of high conservation significance in order to contribute to national conservation targets. Ecotourism should be used as a solution to provide important insights into tourist preferences which contribute to the larger debate of how to establish a balance between managing animal populations to ensure tourist satisfaction while supporting conservation. To ensure sustainability of PPAs, it is strongly recommended to manage PPAs more intensively with regards to PPA size, species stocking rates and landscape use. The presence of juveniles at an animal sighting significantly contributes to tourist satisfaction which suggests that the loss of juveniles may reduce the attraction. This is used to provide recommendations that using contraception to control elephant population numbers should be applied with caution as a management tool as it may be counterproductive by negatively impacting ecotourism. The findings from this study not only contribute to the conservation of biodiversity through the use of ecotourism, but will also ensure sustainability of the ecotourism industry and build capacity for sustainable living

The relevance of spatial variation in ecotourism attributes for the economic sustainability of protected areas

In contemporary society, protected areas are increasingly expected to justify their existence through the services that they provide to society. Protected areas offer many important cultural services, but appraisal of these nonmaterial benefits has generally proven difficult and most studies have focused on single case studies. Data on tourist numbers across multiple camps and protected areas provide a tractable and previously unexploited case study for better understanding the economic sustainability of cultural service provision and the relevance of potentially confounding variables (e.g., location and infrastructure) for park sustainability. We used redundancy analysis and linear models to relate a 5-yr monthly data set (2007–2012) of tourist numbers and tourism-derived income in all camps in South African national parks to a set of largely GIS-derived, determinant attributes that captured key elements of location, biodiversity, infrastructure, and accommodation cost at a camp level. Our analysis suggests that the degree to which cultural services can be converted into revenue for conservation is strongly contingent on infrastructure, location, and the business model that the park adopts. When considered alone, ecological attributes explained 14.2% and 3% of day and overnight visitation rates, respectively. In contrast, models that considered ecosystems in combination with other elements could explain 53% and 67% of variation. Linear models confirmed the existence of complex interactions between groups of variables and highlighted individual covariates that affected visitation rates. Significant variables included ecological features that provided aesthetic services, number of water bodies, elevation, available units, unit costs, and distance to the coast, airports, and other national parks. Taken in context our results suggest that it may be simpler than expected to make predictions about the potential future economic viability of protected areas under alternative models of management, illustrate how ecological variables may represent the “supply” side in cultural services, and highlight the complex interplay between ecological and built infrastructure. Encouragingly, this in turn suggests that relatively small, targeted investments in infrastructure could lead to disproportionate increases in tourist visitation rates and hence in increased revenue for conservation

Challenges and opportunities for monitoring wild Nile crocodiles with scute mark-recapture photography

The global conservation status of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) was last assessed in 1996. The species presents particular difficulty in monitoring because it can be cryptic, require expertise to handle, and caudal tail tags and transmitters are often lost. Some studies advocate mark-recapture techniques based on photograph identification of the unique scute markings of crocodile tails as a non-invasive means of monitoring their populations. Researchers developed this method with crocodiles in captivity. In this study, we test the technique under field conditions by monitoring crocodiles from 2015 to 2017 in the Sunset Dam in the Kruger National Park. Using a Cormack-Jolly-Seber open population model, we found that the dam may host 15–30 individuals, but that there is a high turnover of individuals and much uncertainty in model outputs. The dam’s population thus has high rates of immigration and emigration. The method proved challenging under field conditions, as there was bias in identifying scute markings consistently. The efficient use of the method requires an exceptional quality of photographic equipment. Animal crypsis, however, remains an issue. In this study, we discuss how to improve the mark-recapture photography methodology, especially to adapt the technique for citizen science initiatives. Conservation implications: Using scute mark-recapture photography presents challenges under field conditions. These challenges require innovative, practical and analytical solutions to successfully use the technique before monitoring programmes, aimed at ensuring the persistence of crocodiles in the wild, can be implemented

A point-in-time inventory of chikanda orchids within a wild harvesting wetland area in Mwinilunga, Zambia : implications for conservation

DATA AVAILABILITY : The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.Despite continued wild harvesting, there is limited data that provides estimates on the availability of African edible orchids as a resource, and that identifies the ecological drivers of their dynamics. This study was designed to investigate the relationship between distance from surface water and the diversity, frequency, and population density of chikanda orchids in a harvesting wetland in Mwinilunga, Zambia. Vegetation sampling was conducted using an interrupted belt transect design. Eight 50 m transects were systematically placed and positioned perpendicular (90o) to a stream within three separate orchid communities. Individual plant count was recorded within the 0–10 m, 10–20 m, 20–30 m, 30–40 m, and 40–50 m distance zones. Results showed a statistically significant decrease in the Shannon’s Diversity Index between the distance zones in all three communities (p < 0.05). Mean ranks for orchid taxa frequency and density across the distance zones were significantly different for communities 1 and 2 but not 3 and communities 1 and 3 but not 2, respectively. However, there was a medium to large effect size for distance on frequency and a small to large effect size for distance on density in all three communities. These results suggest that distance from surface water influences the frequency and density of orchid taxa occurring in wetland ecosystems. This implies that for conservation purposes, it may be important to focus on areas close to water when establishing orchid sites for the species investigated in this study.The Postgraduate Scholarship Programme from Stellenbosch University and ZaHBRI (Zambezi Horticultural and Botanical Research Institute).http://link.springer.com/journal/10531hj2024Plant Production and Soil ScienceSDG-15:Life on lan

Pathogens, disease, and the social-ecological resilience of protected areas

It is extremely important for biodiversity conservation that protected areas are resilient to a range of potential future perturbations. One of the least studied influences on protected area resilience is that of disease. We argue that wildlife disease (1) is a social-ecological problem that must be approached from an interdisciplinary perspective; (2) has the potential to lead to changes in the identity of protected areas, possibly transforming them; and (3) interacts with conservation both directly (via impacts on wild animals, livestock, and people) and indirectly (via the public, conservation management, and veterinary responses). We use southern African protected areas as a case study to test a framework for exploring the connections between conservation, endemic disease, and social-ecological resilience. We first define a set of criteria for the social-ecological identity of protected areas. We then use these criteria to explore the potential impacts of selected diseases (foot-and-mouth disease, anthrax, malaria, rabies, rift valley fever, trypanosomiasis, and canine distemper) on protected area resilience. Although endemic diseases may have a number of direct impacts on both wild animals and domestic animals and people, the indirect pathways by which diseases influence social-ecological resilience also emerge as potentially important. The majority of endemic pathogens found in protected areas do not kill large numbers of wild animals or infect many people, and may even play valuable ecological roles; but occasional disease outbreaks and mortalities can have a large impact on public perceptions and disease management, potentially making protected areas unviable in one or more of their stated aims. Neighboring landowners also have a significant impact on park management decisions. The indirect effects triggered by disease in the human social and economic components of protected areas and surrounding landscapes may ultimately have a greater influence on protected area resilience than the direct ecological perturbations caused by disease

Pathogens, disease, and the social-ecological resilience of protected areas

It is extremely important for biodiversity conservation that protected areas are resilient to a range of potential future perturbations. One of the least studied influences on protected area resilience is that of disease. We argue that wildlife disease (1) is a social-ecological problem that must be approached from an interdisciplinary perspective; (2) has the potential to lead to changes in the identity of protected areas, possibly transforming them; and (3) interacts with conservation both directly (via impacts on wild animals, livestock, and people) and indirectly (via the public, conservation management, and veterinary responses). We use southern African protected areas as a case study to test a framework for exploring the connections between conservation, endemic disease, and socialecological resilience. We first define a set of criteria for the social-ecological identity of protected areas. We then use these criteria to explore the potential impacts of selected diseases (foot-and-mouth disease, anthrax, malaria, rabies, rift valley fever, trypanosomiasis, and canine distemper) on protected area resilience. Although endemic diseases may have a number of direct impacts on both wild animals and domestic animals and people, the indirect pathways by which diseases influence social-ecological resilience also emerge as potentially important. The majority of endemic pathogens found in protected areas do not kill large numbers of wild animals or infect many people, and may even play valuable ecological roles; but occasional disease outbreaks and mortalities can have a large impact on public perceptions and disease management, potentially making protected areas unviable in one or more of their stated aims. Neighboring landowners also have a significant impact on park management decisions. The indirect effects triggered by disease in the human social and economic components of protected areas and surrounding landscapes may ultimately have a greater influence on protected area resilience than the direct ecological perturbations caused by disease

Temperature-dependent sex determination in the Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus, in the Okavango River, Botswana, and the effect of global climate change

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus exhibits temperature-dependent sex determination, where sex is determined by the incubation temperature of the egg prior to hatching. Laboratory incubation of the eggs indicated that the lower and upper pivotal temperature for the Nile crocodile in the Okavango River, Botswana was 31.4°C and 33.4°C respectively. Exclusively females were produced at a constant temperature of 30.0°C, 30.5°C and 34.0°C, 71% females were produced at 31.0°C and the majority males were produced at 31.5; 32.0; 32.5 and 33.0°C. Crocodylus niloticus in the Okavango Region therefore has a female-male-female pattern of temperaturedependent sex determination where females are produced at lower and higher incubation temperatures. Embryonic development, incubation period, hatching success and development rates were strongly temperature dependent. The location of nests plays an important role in determination of incubation temperature. At a distance of 6m from the river, soil temperature was at a maximum at a depth of 25cm. Breeding females choose nesting sites based on optimal soil temperatures. Along the Okavango River the average nest sites were 5.6m from the river, and the eggs were at an average depth of 24.5cm. Calculation of mean nest temperature during the thermosensitive period (sex determining period) of incubation for ten wild Nile crocodile nests indicated that the nests along the Okavango River are primarily female-biased. An increase in average air temperature due to Global Climate Change could possibly shift the population to a malebiased sex ratio, leading to eventual extinction of the Nile crocodile in the Okavango River. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.zaAFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Nylkrokodil, Crocody/us niloticus, vertoon temperatuur-afhanklike geslagsdeterminasie waar die geslag afhanklik is van die inkubasie-temperatuur van die eiers net voor hulle uitbroei. Laboratorium-inkubasie van die eiers het aangedui dat 31.4°C en 33.4°C, respektiewelik die beslissende lae en hoe temperatuur vir die Nylkrokodil in die Okavango Rivier, Botswana is. Uitsluitlik wyfies is geproduseer by 30.0°C, 30.5°C en 34.5°C, 71 % wyfies is geproduseer by 31.0°C en 'n meerderheid mannetjies is geproduseer by 31.5°C, 32.0°C, 32.5°C en 33.0°C. Crocodylus niloticus in die Okavango gebied het dus n wyfie-mannetjie-wyfie-patroon van temperatuurafhanklike geslagsdeterminasie waar wyfies geproduseer is by lae en hoe inkubasietemperature. Embrionale ontwikkeling, inkubasie-tydperk, uitbroei-sukses en ontwikkelingstempos was sterk afhanklik van temperatuur. Die ligging van die nes speel 'n belangrike rol in die inkubasie-temperatuur van die eiers. Die temperatuur van die sand was die warmste by 'n afstand van 6m vanaf die rivier en by 'n diepte van 25cm. Telende wyfies kies nesgebiede gebaseerd op optimale sandtemperature. Langs die Okavango Rivier was die gemiddelde nes 5.6m vanaf die rivier en die eiers was 'n diepte van 24.5cm onder die grand. Berekening van gemiddelde nestemperature gedurende die termosensitieve tydperk van broei vir tien Nylkrokodilneste langs die Okavango Rivier, het 'n wyfie-gunstige neiging getoon. Die geslagsverhouding van die krokodilkleintjies is afhanklik van die inkubasie-temperatuur van die nes.; 'n verhooging in temperatuur, a.g.v. globale klimaatsveranderinge, sal die bevolking na 'n mannetjiegunstige geslagsverhouding toe skuif en uiteindelik lei tot die uitsterwing van die Nylkrokodil in die Okavango Rivier

Reconciling community ecology and ecosystem services: cultural services and benefits from birds in South African National Parks

The ecosystem services paradigm has been used to bridge disciplinary boundaries and to justify conservation action. Protected areas are now expected to both meet species-level conservation objectives and provide ecosystem services. The relationships between species composition and cultural benefits to people are, however, poorly understood. We quantified benefit-biodiversity relationships between birders and bird communities in South African National Parks to test four hypotheses: 'more is better', the threshold hypothesis, the rarity hypothesis, and the contextual hypothesis. Data were collected along 293 routes in a paired sampling design. Expert birders, collecting classical point count data, followed (24 h later) the GPS-tracked routes of amateur birders. Amateurs completed satisfaction surveys after each route. Bird-related variables, such as diversity and activity, explained c. 27% of variance in birder benefits; other variables, such as the weather and landscape beauty, increased this to 57%. Linear models partially supported 'more is better', but indicated that birders adjust expectations and resulting benefits with location. Cultural benefits are delivered at scales ranging from organisms to landscapes. Conserving cultural ecosystem services is not equivalent to conserving species composition. Rigorous measurement of cultural ecosystem services and benefits demands a multi-scale, multi-level perspective that links people to species, ecological communities, and landscapes