Mars: new insights and unresolved questions

Mars exploration motivates the search for extraterrestrial life, the development of space technologies, and the design of human missions and habitations. Here, we seek new insights and pose unresolved questions relating to the natural history of Mars, habitability, robotic and human exploration, planetary protection, and the impacts on human society. Key observations and findings include: – high escape rates of early Mars’ atmosphere, including loss of water, impact present-day habitability; – putative fossils on Mars will likely be ambiguous biomarkers for life; – microbial contamination resulting from human habitation is unavoidable; and – based on Mars’ current planetary protection category, robotic payload(s) should characterize the local martian environment for any life-forms prior to human habitation.Some of the outstanding questions are:– which interpretation of the hemispheric dichotomy of the planet is correct; – to what degree did deep-penetrating faults transport subsurface liquids to Mars’ surface; – in what abundance are carbonates formed by atmospheric processes; – what properties of martian meteorites could be used to constrain their source locations; – the origin(s) of organic macromolecules; – was/is Mars inhabited; – how can missions designed to uncover microbial activity in the subsurface eliminate potential false positives caused by microbial contaminants from Earth; – how can we ensure that humans and microbes form a stable and benign biosphere; and – should humans relate to putative extraterrestrial life from a biocentric viewpoint (preservation of all biology), or anthropocentric viewpoint of expanding habitation of space?Studies of Mars’ evolution can shed light on the habitability of extrasolar planets. In addition, Mars exploration can drive future policy developments and confirm (or put into question) the feasibility and/or extent of human habitability of space

High-resolution 3D seismic study of pockmarks and shallow fluid flow systems at the Snøhvit hydrocarbon field in the SW Barents Sea

The Barents Sea is an epicontinental shelf sea with a fragmented structure consisting of long fault complexes, basins and basement highs. Fluid leakage from deep-seated hydrocarbon accumulations is a widespread phenomenon and mostly related to its denudation history during the glacial/interglacial cycles. In this study, we aimed to better understand shallow fluid flow processes that have led to the formation of numerous pockmarks observed at the seabed, in this area. To achieve this goal, we acquired and interpreted high-resolution 3D seismic and multibeam swath bathymetry data from the Snøhvit area in the Hammerfest Basin, SW Barents Sea. The high-resolution 3D seismic data were obtained using the P-Cable system, which consists of 14 streamers and allows for a vertical resolution of ~1.5 m and a bin size of 6.25 × 6.25 m to be obtained. The frequency bandwidth of this type of acquisition configuration is approximately 50–300 Hz. Seismic surfaces and volume attributes, such as variance and amplitude, have been used to identify potential fluid accumulations and fluid flow pathways. Several small fluid accumulations occur at the Upper Regional Unconformity separating the glacial and pre-glacial sedimentary formations. Together, these subsurface structures and fluid accumulations control the presence of pockmarks in the Snøhvit study area. Two different types of pockmarks occur at the seabed: a few pockmarks with elliptical shape, up to a few hundred meters wide and with depths up to 12 m, and numerous circular, small, “unit pockmarks” that are only up to 20 m wide and up to 1 m deep. Both types of pockmarks are found within glacial ploughmarks, suggesting that they likely formed during deglaciation or afterwards. Some of the larger normal pockmarks show columnar leakage zones beneath them. Pressure and temperature conditions were favourable for the formation of gas hydrates. During deglaciation, gases may have been released from dissociating gas hydrates prolonging the period over which active seepage occurred. At present, there is no evidence from the 3D seismic data of active gas seepage in the Snøhvit area. Low sedimentation rates or the influence of strong deep ocean currents may explain why these pockmarks can still be identified on the contemporary seabed