Thermal comfort conditions in airport terminals: Indoor or transition spaces?

This paper reports on the investigation of the thermal comfort conditions in three airport terminals in the UK. In the course of seasonal field surveys, the indoor environmental conditions were monitored in different terminal areas and questionnaire-guided interviews were conducted with 3087 terminal users. The paper focuses on the thermal perception, preference and comfort requirements of passengers and terminal staff. The two groups presented different satisfaction levels with the indoor environment and significant differences in their thermal requirements, while both preferring a thermal environment different to the one experienced. The thermal conflict emerges throughout the terminal spaces. The neutral and preferred temperatures for passengers were lower than for employees and considerably lower than the mean indoor temperature. Passengers demonstrated higher tolerance of the thermal conditions and consistently a wider range of comfor

The Performance of Natural Ventilation In A Dance Studio – Lessons From Tracer Gas Measurements And Control Integration

The naturally ventilated, three storey School of Arts Jarman Building provides two dance studios, an exhibition gallery, teaching rooms, video editing suites and offices. The main dance studio is double-height, has underfloor heating and accommodates sixty people. Fresh air enters from low level perimeter louvres and exits at high level through a stack that rises through the third storey to a stack terminal with motorized louvres. Tracer gas (CO2) measurements were used to measure the ventilation rate in conjunction with hot-wire anemometry in the stack tower. The results showed that when all air inlet and exit louvres were set to closed, the residual air flow up the stack was 0.33m3/s representing a potential heat loss of 9kW in winter at 0°C outside. When the louvres were all open, the air flow increased to between 0.49 and 0.62m3/s, a level consistent with the studio’s design occupancy. It was found that the studio’s 4m high perimeter curtains represent a barrier to fresh air entering the main room space and cause the incoming air to migrate upwards towards the stack exit and effectively bypass the central part of the studio. Tracer gas decay rates showed that the main space experienced an air exchange rate 50% less than that for the overall studio. An investigation of the controls also revealed that the underfloor heating system operated independently of the control of the stack ventilation system, leading to simultaneous heating and venting. The research shows the vital importance of prescribing contractually that key controls are integrated, that fresh air dampers are well-sealed when closed, and the importance of designing a fresh air supply that matches the way a space is used

Evaluation of comfort conditions in airport terminal buildings

This paper presents findings from extensive field surveys in three airport terminal buildings in the UK, where the indoor environmental conditions were seasonally monitored and simultaneous structured interviews were conducted with 3087 terminal users. Moving beyond the recent work which brought to light the significantly differentiated requirements for thermal comfort between passengers and staff, this paper expands on the investigation of thermal and lighting comfort needs for the entire spectrum of terminal users under the scope of energy conservation. The results demonstrate the influence of the thermal environment on overall comfort and reveal consistent discrepancies, up to 2.1 °C, between preferred and experienced thermal conditions. Outdoor temperature dictated the clothing levels worn indoors, where the preferred thermal state was other than neutral. Terminal users demonstrated high levels of thermal tolerance and wide acceptability temperature ranges, averaging 6.1 °C in summer and 6.7 °C in winter, which allow for heating energy savings through the fine-tuning of indoor temperature set-points. Lighting comprises an additional field for energy savings through the maximisation of natural light. Bright rather than dim conditions were preferred and a preference for more natural light was evident even in cases where this was deemed to be sufficient, while the preference for more daylight was found to be time-dependent suggesting a link with the human circadian rhythm. The findings from this study can inform strategies aimed at reducing energy use in airport terminals without compromising comfort conditions as well as the design and refurbishment of new and existing terminals respectively

Magnitude and extent of building fabric thermal performance gap in UK low energy housing

This paper presents new evidence from a nationwide cross-project meta-study investigating the magnitude and extent of the difference between designed and measured thermal performance of the building fabric of 188 low energy dwellings in the UK. The dataset was drawn from the UK Government’s national Building Performance Evaluation programme, and comprises 50 Passivhaus (PH) and 138 non-Passivhaus (NPH) dwellings, covering different built forms and construction systems. The difference between designed and measured values of air permeability (AP), external wall/roof thermal transmittance (U-value) and whole house heat loss were statistically analysed, along with a review of thermal imaging data to explain any discrepancies. The results showed that fabric thermal performance gap was widespread especially in terms of AP, although the magnitude of underperformance was much less in PH dwellings. While measured AP had good correlation with measured space heating energy for PH dwellings, there was no relationship between the two for NPH dwellings. The regression analysis indicated that for every 1 m3/h/m2 reduction in designed air permeability, the gap increased by 0.8 m3/h/m2@50 Pa. Monte Carlo analysis showed that likelihood of AP gap was 78% in NPH dwellings designed to 5 m3/h/m2@50 Pa or lower. The study provides useful evidence for improving the fabric thermal performance of new housing through in-situ testing

Meta-study of the energy performance gap in UK low energy housing

This paper presents new evidence from a nationwide meta-study investigating the magnitude and extent of the difference between predicted and measured energy performance (energy performance gap) of over 50 low energy dwellings in the UK. Statistical testing of predicted and measured energy use is undertaken to assess the impact of occupancy related factors (number of occupants, occupancy type, pattern) on energy performance, and to predict the likelihood of the space heating energy performance gap in UK new build housing. The dataset was drawn from the UK Government’s National Building Performance Evaluation programme – which included the final reports, Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) calculations and Domestic Energy Assessment and Reporting Methodology (DomEARM) results – and comprises 30 Passivhaus (PH) and 62 non-Passivhaus (NPH) dwellings, covering different built forms and construction systems. The majority of the sample comprised social housing dwellings built with masonry and timber frames and equipped with mechanical ventilation heat recovery systems. Although the average annual energy use (gas and electricity) in the PH and NPH dwellings was found to be 73kWh/m2 and 117 kWh/m2 respectively, electricity use was not significantly different between the two groups. All dwellings in the sample performed better than UK Building Regulations, however average energy use was higher than predicted by an average of 60%, but as much as 147% in PH and 241% in NPH dwellings. The overwhelming majority - 13 out of 14 PH and 35 out of 43 NPH dwellings - did not meet the predicted energy use, demonstrating a performance gap of 22 kWh/m2/year and 45 kWh/m2/year respectively. Occupancy was found to influence 45% of total energy use, with occupancy pattern being more critical than occupancy type and number of occupants. Despite the high levels of fabric thermal standards, space heating was found to be the largest energy end use (28% in PH and 42% in NPH dwellings) followed by domestic hot water (28%) and small appliances (21%), while the ratio of regulated to unregulated energy was found to be 70:30. The probability of an energy performance gap in space heating occurring in the population of new build housing was found to be over 80%. The study findings are important for bridging the gap between intent and actual performance of new low energy housing

From indoors to outdoors and in-transition; thermal comfort across different operation contexts

This paper focuses on the investigation of thermal comfort conditions in three very different operational contexts using meta-analysis of different studies within a similar climatic context in the UK. This includes extensive surveys indoors from offices, outdoors from urban areas, as well as indoors from airport terminals. Recent research in airport terminal buildings has highlighted that there are very different user groups, with diverse requirements for thermal comfort in such facilities. The paper investigates the hypothesis that staff working in the different areas have needs more similar to those of staff working in offices, while passengers use the building as a transition area with very different requirements and hence closer to the outdoor environment. Analysing and comparing the thermal comfort conditions from the different contexts, it explores the role of adaptation for thermal comfort attainment and satisfaction with the environment and the similarities of very different operational contexts in terms of their thermal comfort characteristics. Finally, the paper highlighted techniques for the potential transformation of thermal comfort scales, which can enable comparison between different types of surveys and inform the wider thermal comfort debate

Experimental investigation of the impact of urban fabric on canyon albedo using a 1:10 scaled physical model

This paper presents findings from a large-scale experiment on the impact of urban fabric on canyon albedo, aimed at informing the development of an urban albedo calculator for London, an empirical model to predict changes in urban albedo in relation to changes in urban fabric and solar altitude. Through different material applications on a 1:10 scaled physical model of an actual residential area, the study assessed the effect of street-level materials and three common façade types on canyon albedo alongside the canyon’s reflective power in the infrared, and the impact of rain. The results showed that the addition of concrete paving at street level increased canyon albedo by 9%, while the substitution of tarmac with grass by 70%. Brickwork and aluminium cladding façades were seen to contribute to significantly higher canyon albedo than curtain wall across the measured irradiance spectrum. The results also revealed the highly dynamic nature of canyon albedo and a consistent rainfall-induced reduction of albedo in the range 22-36% throughout the experimental phases. The findings from this study can inform urban planning and policy making directed at tackling the urban heat island effect

Understanding Thermal Comfort Conditions in Airport Terminal Buildings

This paper presents the results from the thermal comfort studies at three airport terminal buildings in the UK where seasonal on-site surveys were conducted. The investigation involved extensive monitoring of the indoor environmental conditions along with 3,087 questionnaire-guided interviews with terminal users. The paper quantifies the thermal requirements of the terminal population and focuses on the thermal perception of passengers and staff in different terminal spaces. The findings demonstrate the preference for a different thermal environment than the one experienced and that thermal neutrality is found to lie at lower temperatures than those experienced, suggesting an overheating issue, predominantly in winter. Passengers and staff present different satisfaction levels with the indoor environment while their thermal sensation is greatly affected from the characteristics and function of the terminal spaces

Investigating the Impact of Urban Fabric on Urban Albedo: Case Study of London

The paper presents the preliminary work in developing an Urban Albedo Calculator, an empirical model to predict changes in urban albedo in relation to changes in the urban fabric, materials, solar geometry, etc. It investigates experimentally, through a 1:10 scale model a case study in central London, and computationally, through RADAINCE, the impact of urban geometry and materials’ reflectance. Following the successful calibration of the model, the results highlighted the substantial impact of urban materials and their placement on urban albedo, demonstrating that biggest weighting of horizontal ground surfaces in the case of low rise environments. The effect of geometry was investigated through different scenarios, at ground and roof levels, as well as through changes in the H/W ratio. The results demonstrated that increasing the H/W ratio has the most significant impact on urban albedo, with the albedo changes varying under different sky conditions due to the orientation of the blocks

Climate Change Adaptation and Retrofit of a Victorian Townhouse in Margate: the 5-year Living Lab

This paper focuses on the analysis of a longitudinal five-year study following the retrofitting and post-occupancy evaluation of a heritage townhouse designed for multi-generation living in Margate. The three-generation family of five adults and one child are renting the council-owned 420m2. The POE confirmed 100% satisfaction and thermal comfort during both winter and summer. The results from the extensive monitoring confirmed the acceptable thermal environment during the free-running mode in the summer, when for a significant amount of time parts of the property were below the Cat II category. The thermal environment in winter was very stable varying from 19.9°C in the basement, to 23.2°C in the third floor living room, while in the non-refurbished property across the square, which was used for comparison, mean temperature was 15°C. The average 5K temperature difference between the two properties highlight the success of the refurbishment, which was sympathetic to the original character of the house, respecting the heritage features