Risk-rated economic values for production and functional traits of Small East African goat using profit functions

The study reports the effect of incorporating risk in the derivation of economic values for traits of the breeding goal of Small East African goats under the pastoral production system. A model previously used to derive conventional economic values was revised to incorporate variances of profit and risk attitudes of livestock keepers in estimation of risk-rated economic values. This resulted in a decrease in the estimated economic values by -14.7% (milk yield), -2.7% (12-month live weight), -23.9% (consumable meat percentage), -6.6% (mature doe live weight), -98% (mature buck live weight), -8.6% (kidding frequency), -8.2% (pre-weaning survival rate), -8.9% (post-weaning survival rate), -8.1% (doe survival rate) and 0% (residual feed intake). The decrease in the conomic values implied that livestock keepers who were risk averse were willing to accept lower expected returns to void the opportunity of unfavourable outcomes

Socio-economic factors influencing small ruminant breeding in Kenya

In order to design an effective small ruminant (i.e., goats and sheep) breeding program in Kenya and other areas with similar production circumstances, it is important to understand the socio-economic factors applying to the relevant production system. Information on these was obtained from a questionnaire carried out on both smallholders and pastoral/ extensive farmers in seven selected districts. From the 458 responding households, 18% kept only goats, 34% kept only sheep, and 48% kept both species. Goats were generally ranked lower in popularity. The most represented breeds in the households were the indigenous East African goat and the Red Maasai sheep, and crossbred genotypes of goats and sheep. However, according to the farmers, the pure breeds were more popular than the crossbreeds. The households owned the majority of the used land for small ruminant production. In many cases, male household members were in control of the land. Animals were in most cases owned by the household head only or by both the household head and the spouse. The most important water source for animals was the river with the frequency of watering in the dry season in some cases being as low as once a day. Both males and females made most decisions in smallholder households. Women in the pastoral/ extensive systems participated less significantly in decision making than those in smallholder households, although they were responsible to many animal production related activities

Institutional and organizational frameworks for dairy and beef cattle recording in Kenya: a review and opportunities for improvement

To facilitate livestock improvement in developing countries, records on animal populations and their various productivity levels are important. However, in these countries, livestock recording presents a huge challenge. This paper presents an outline of the historical developments and the current scenario in dairy and beef recording in Kenya, where a recording scheme has been in place since 1963, yet the productive potential of most animals in the country remains unknown. The paper brings into context the state of recording in relation to the potential for future developments in dairy and beef production within the country. Despite the enormous existing potential, low numbers of livestock records are captured due to multiple challenges, which include limited funding, lack of incentives to record, limited feedback on records, a fragmented organizational structure, poor infrastructure, limited numbers of skilled personnel and lack of supporting policies. Strategies to overcome the challenges and achieve more sustainable utilization of the existing livestock populations are discussed. Linking recording to key service providers within the livestock production sector could enhance data collection, processing and feedback to livestock producers. The quality of extension services provided must be improved in order to holistically support livestock production. Recent international regulations on the traceability of livestock products sold within different countries mean that unless Kenya implements a robust animal recording programme, the country will be locked out of markets for its livestock products

Breeding objectives and breeding strategies for small ruminants in the tropics

Small ruminants (i.e., sheep and goats) are widespread in the tropics and are important to the subsistence, economic and social livelihoods of a large human population in these areas. The aim of this thesis was to identify the breeding objectives for tropical small ruminants, and to develop appropriate breeding strategies for their improvement. The results indicated that breed substitution and crossbreeding programmes involving temperate breeds are rarely successful due to incompatibility of the genotypes with the farmers' breeding objectives and the production systems. Within-breed selection programmes utilizing indigenous breeds are likely to be more sustainable than breed substitution and crossbreeding. In addition, they help to maintain biodiversity. Indigenous genotypes were predominantly found among pastoral/extensive farmers and mixed crosses among smallholders. In general farmers perceived crosses less favourably than indigenous breeds for a range of traits. The effect was studied of including intangible benefits in the calculation of economic values of breeding goal traits. It resulted in increased values of traits related to longevity. Litter size and lambing frequency were more important traits in smallholder and pastoral production. 12-month live weight also featured prominently in pastoral production. Constraints to small ruminant productivity included low levels of management, disease and parasite challenge, inadequate feed and poor marketing. Nucleus breeding schemes are recommended to optimize the limited available resources. However, 'interactive cycling screening' schemes would be more practical under village settings as the farmers are actively involved in genetic improvement, and minimal recording is required in the commercial flocks. A single nucleus could serve both the smallholder and pastoral production. In conclusion, it is prudent to examine the production system holistically, and involve the producer at every stage in the planning and operation of a breeding programme, integrating traditional knowledge, practices, behaviour and values

Breeding objectives and breeding strategies for small ruminants in the tropics.

Small ruminants (i.e., sheep and goats) are widespread in the tropics and are important to the subsistence, economic and social livelihoods of a large human population in these areas. The aim of this thesis was to identify the breeding objectives for tropical small ruminants, and to develop appropriate breeding strategies for their improvement. The results indicated that breed substitution and crossbreeding programmes involving temperate breeds are rarely successful due to incompatibility of the genotypes with the farmers' breeding objectives and the production systems. Within-breed selection programmes utilizing indigenous breeds are likely to be more sustainable than breed substitution and crossbreeding. In addition, they help to maintain biodiversity. Indigenous genotypes were predominantly found among pastoral/extensive farmers and mixed crosses among smallholders. In general farmers perceived crosses less favourably than indigenous breeds for a range of traits. The effect was studied of including intangible benefits in the calculation of economic values of breeding goal traits. It resulted in increased values of traits related to longevity. Litter size and lambing frequency were more important traits in smallholder and pastoral production. 12-month live weight also featured prominently in pastoral production. Constraints to small ruminant productivity included low levels of management, disease and parasite challenge, inadequate feed and poor marketing. Nucleus breeding schemes are recommended to optimize the limited available resources. However, 'interactive cycling screening' schemes would be more practical under village settings as the farmers are actively involved in genetic improvement, and minimal recording is required in the commercial flocks. A single nucleus could serve both the smallholder and pastoral production. In conclusion, it is prudent to examine the production system holistically, and involve the producer at every stage in the planning and operation of a breeding programme, integrating traditional knowledge, practices, behaviour and values

Genetic improvement of small ruminants in low-input, smallholder production systems: technical and infrastructural issues

A.M. Okeyo is ILRI authorSmall ruminants (i.e., sheep and goats) are ubiquitous, and contribute significantly to the subsistence, economic and social livelihoods of a large human population in low-input, smallholder production systems in developing countries. Increasing human population, urbanization and incomes, coupled with changing consumer preferences are creating more demand for these animals and their products. This demand can effectively be met by substantially increasing the productivity of these animals. Integrated effort in terms of management, health, genetic improvement and product technology to enhance production and decrease wastage is, therefore, desirable. Efficient genetic improvement programs can boost output and profitability for the smallholders. However, there is a lack of information on sustainable conventional genetic improvement programs under smallholder production circumstances. Consequently, methods for implementing and the factors influencing the success of genetic improvement programs should be studied. This review focuses on the technical and infrastructural issues affecting the genetic improvement of small ruminants in low-input, smallholder production systems. It is concluded that a key step is to identify existing structures, institutions, and indigenous breeding practices, and, to build upon these foundation programs where there are opportunities for sustainable genetic improvement

Economic values for traits in breeding objectives for sheep in the tropics: impact of tangible and intangible benefits

In traditional management systems in the tropics, sheep constitute a source of easily convertible capital for financing purposes and insurance, a means of cultural and ceremonial functions, and a source of prestige, meat, manure and skins. In this study, breeding objectives were derived for an indigenous tropical sheep breed under pastoral production. Economic values were calculated for five situations: (i) base accounting for both tangible and intangible roles of sheep; (ii) accounting for manure, skins and intangible roles; (iii) accounting for 20% of animals sold, insurance, manure and skins; (iv) accounting for intangible roles only; and (v) accounting for tangible roles only. Sensitivity analysis to different levels of financing and insurance benefit factors, reproduction, survival and live weight traits was performed for the situation accounting for both tangible and intangible roles, and with a constant number of ewes. The economic value for a trait considered in a particular situation was calculated from the difference between the average performance level of the trait before and after incrementing it by one unit. The traits considered were litter size, lambing frequency, pre-weaning and post-weaning lamb survival to 12 months, ewe survival, 12-month lamb live weight, mature ewe live weight, consumable meat and kg manure dry matter sold ewe(-1) year(-1). Genirally, in descending order of the profits and economic values, the situations studied ranked as follows: (i), (v), (iii), (ii) and (iv). For the base situation, financing and insurance benefits accounted for 13% and 6% of the total revenues, respectively. Situation (v) had a profit that was about 35% lower relative to situation (i). In terms of genetic standard deviations, the economic values (US$ ewe(-1) year(-1)) for the base situation were: 2.81 for litter size, 6.40 for lambing frequency, 0.02 for pre-weaning survival, 0.03 for post-weaning survival, 0.05 for ewe survival, 1.81 for 12-month lamb live weight, 0.43 for mature ewe live weight, 0.09 for consumable meat and 0.01 for kg manure dry matter sold (ewe(-1) year(-1)). The economic values indicate that litter size, lambing frequency and 12-month lamb live weight are likely to be important traits in pastoral production. Sensitivity analysis showed that future economic values for all the traits considered, except kg manure dry matter sold ewe(-1) year(-1), might change depending on levels of intangible benefit factors. Ewe survival and mature ewe live weight were not responsive to changes in reproductive traits, and pre- and post-weaning traits, and vice versa. It is concluded that it is necessary to include the intangible roles of sheep in tropical breeding programmes. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Economic values for traits of meat sheep in medium to high production potential areas of the tropics

Breeding objectives were developed for meat sheep in smallholder production circumstances in the tropics. The traits considered were litter size, lambing frequency, pre-weaning, and post-weaning lamb survival to 12 months, ewe survival, lamb live weight at 12-month, mature ewe live weight, consumable meat, kg of manure DM sold per ewe per year and residual DM feed intake. Three evaluation situations were considered: (i) base with constant number of ewes, (ii) fixed feed resource and (iii) setting feed costs to zero. Sensitivity analysis of economic values to price levels of inputs and meat production was carried out. The fixed feed resource situation appropriately describes smallholder production circumstances. In the base situation, meat production accounted for about 88% of revenue and manure the remaining 12%. Variable costs represented about 95% of the total cost. For the fixed feed resource situation, economic values (US$ per ewe per year) were 12.94 for litter size, 10.18 for lambing frequency, 0.19 for pre-weaning lamb survival, 0.24 for post-weaning lamb survival, 0.36 for ewe survival, 1.02 for 12-month lamb live weight, 0.14 for mature ewe live weight, 0.51 for consumable meat, 0.08 for kg of manure DM sold (per ewe per year) and -0.04 for residual DM feed intake. Litter size and lambing frequency were the most important traits in a breeding objective for smallholder production. Relative to the base situation, setting feed costs to zero had similar results as the situation with restricted feed resource but resulted in larger differences. Sensitivity analysis of economic weights to changes in prices and production circumstances indicated that future economic values for traits might change dependent on levels of output and prices. The exceptions, with regard to changes in meat price are kg of manure DM sold per ewe per year and residual DM feed intake, and with regard to feed costs are consumable meat and kg of manure DM sold per ewe per year. Economic values for 12-month lamb live weight, mature ewe live weight, consumable meat, kg of manure DM sold per ewe per year and residual DM feed intake were not sensitive to changes in management and marketing circumstances. Caution is recommended when the breeding objectives presented here are applied not to disadvantage smallholders in poor climatic years, when farmers are at their most vulnerable situation. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

Evaluation of Closed Adult Nucleus Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer and Conventional Progeny Testing Breeding Schemes for Milk Production from Crossbred Cattle in the Tropics

The potential benefits of closed adult nucleus multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) and conventional progeny testing (CNS) schemes, and the logistics of their integration into large-scale continuous production of crossbred cattle were studied by deterministic simulation. The latter was based on F1 (Bos taurus x Bos indicus) production using AI or natural mating and MOET, and continuous F2 production by mating of F1 animals. The gene flow and the cumulative discounted expressions (CDES) were also calculated. Both schemes had 8, 16, 32, or 64 dams with 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32 sires selected. In the MOET nucleus scheme (MNS), the test capacity was 1, 2, 8, or 16 offspring, and the number of matings per dam per year was 1, 2, or 4. A scheme of 8 sires with 64 dams and a test capacity of 4 female offspring per dam per year resulted in an annual genetic gain (in phenotypic standard deviation) of 0.324 and 0.081 for MNS and CNS, respectively. In the MNS, there was substantial genetic gain with a relatively small number of animals compared with a CNS. The F1 had the highest, and the F2 scheme the lowest CDES. However, a very large number of B. indicus females would be required in the F1 scheme. This scheme may not be practical under conditions in developing countries. The F2 scheme was logistically attractive because it produces its own replacements, and the number of B. taurus females required would be easy to attain. Accompanying technical and financial constraints of nucleus schemes should be addressed before applying the

Economic values for traits in breeding objectives for sheep in the tropics: Impact of tangible and intangible benefits

In traditional management systems in the tropics, sheep constitute a source of easily convertible capital for financing purposes and insurance, a means of cultural and ceremonial functions, and a source of prestige, meat, manure and skins. In this study, breeding objectives were derived for an indigenous tropical sheep breed under pastoral production. Economic values were calculated for five situations: (i) base accounting for both tangible and intangible roles of sheep; (ii) accounting for manure, skins and intangible roles; (iii) accounting for 20% of animals sold, insurance, manure and skins; (iv) accounting for intangible roles only; and (v) accounting for tangible roles only. Sensitivity analysis to different levels of financing and insurance benefit factors, reproduction, survival and live weight traits was performed for the situation accounting for both tangible and intangible roles, and with a constant number of ewes. The economic value for a trait considered in a particular situation was calculated from the difference between the average performance level of the trait before and after incrementing it by one unit. The traits considered were litter size, lambing frequency, pre-weaning and post-weaning lamb survival to 12 months, ewe survival, 12-month lamb live weight, mature ewe live weight, consumable meat and kg manure dry matter sold ewe-1 year-1. Generally, in descending order of the profits and economic values, the situations studied ranked as follows: (i), (v), (iii), (ii) and (iv). For the base situation, financing and insurance benefits accounted for 13% and 6% of the total revenues, respectively. Situation (v) had a profit that was about 35% lower relative to situation (i). In terms of genetic standard deviations, the economic values (US$ ewe-1 year-1) for the base situation were: 2.81 for litter size, 6.40 for lambing frequency, 0.02 for pre-weaning survival, 0.03 for post-weaning survival, 0.05 for ewe survival, 1.81 for 12-month lamb live weight, 0.43 for mature ewe live weight, 0.09 for consumable meat and 0.01 for kg manure dry matter sold (ewe-1 year-1). The economic values indicate that litter size, lambing frequency and 12-month lamb live weight are likely to be important traits in pastoral production. Sensitivity analysis showed that future economic values for all the traits considered, except kg manure dry matter sold ewe-1 year-1, might change depending on levels of intangible benefit factors. Ewe survival and mature ewe live weight were not responsive to changes in reproductive traits, and pre- and post-weaning traits, and vice versa. It is concluded that it is necessary to include the intangible roles of sheep in tropical breeding programmes