Primary Emissions of Submicron and Carbonaceous Particles in Europe and the Potential for their Control

The interest in submicron and specifically carbonaceous particles in the atmosphere has risen recently, largely because of their potential role as climate forcing agents. Black carbon (BC) particles absorb solar radiation and are suspected to be a significant factor contributing to climate warming. Particulate organic carbon (OC), in turn, acts as a cooling substance. In principle, all of the atmospheric BC and a large part of the OC are emitted from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. To model the climatic effects of carbonaceous aerosols it is crucial to provide robust estimates of their emission strengths. Recent measurements of atmospheric optical depth suggest that earlier BC emission inventories may lead to over-estimations of atmospheric BC over Europe. This paper describes estimates of emissions of primary submicron particles, BC and OC in Europe, applying an extended PM-module of the RAINS model. The European emissions in 2000 are estimated at 2.8, 0.67 and 0.99 Tg for submicron, BC and OC, respectively. The main sources are exhaust emissions from traffic and residential combustion of solid fuels, which together amount to 64 percent of the submicron emissions, 85 percent of the total BC and 81 percent of the total OC. By 2010 the emissions of all three pollutants are projected to decline by about 20 percent, largely due to implementation of the 'EURO-standards' for mobile sources and fuel switching in the residential sector

Integrated Ammonia Abatement - Modelling of Emission Control Potentials and Costs in GAINS

With progressing reduction of the emissions of other air pollutants, control of ammonia emissions, particularly from agricultural sources, moves into the center stage of air pollution control in Europe. Over the recent years, more countries have implemented practical emission control measures, so that practical experience with such measures has substantially grown compared to a decade ago. This report describes how the new information on potentials and costs for the reduction of ammonia emissions that has been presented by national experts at a recent workshop has been incorporated into the GAINS (Greenhouse gas - Air pollution Interactions and Synergies) model developed by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA). The former GAINS methodology has been modified to align better with the new focus of the UNECE Task Force on Reactive Nitrogen on large installations and to avoid calling for emission reductions on small (hobby) farms. As such a distinction will exclude measures with excessive costs (at small farms), the new cost estimates that address large farms only are lower than earlier calculations that applied to all sources. A comparison of unit cost estimates (costs per amount of ammonia reduced) reveals significant variations across countries, explained by local circumstances that have impacts on costs. Still, the most important patterns remain constant between countries. Animal feeding with low nitrogen diets and manure application techniques that minimize ammonia release are most cost effective, along with efficient application and/or substitution of urea fertilizer. Finally, the report provides also updates to the cost method used to estimate ammonia control costs in GAINS

Emissions from households and other small combustion sources and their reduction potential

To explore the potential contribution of Eco-design product standards to the achievement of the targets of the Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution, this report develops different scenarios for implementations of more stringent emission limit values to small combustion sources. In 2005, small sources of solid fuel combustion contributed about one third to total EU-27 emissions of fine particles (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC), and less than 10% to total non.methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). For PM2.5, it is estimated that an implementation of Eco-design standards would lead to significant reductions of emissions from small sources compared to the baseline projection. If the discussed Eco-design standards were only introduced for air pollution emissions (without requirements for improved energy efficiencies), PM2.5 from these sources would decline by 38% in 2020 relative to 2005 level (compared to a 21% cut in the current legislation case). By 2030, the Eco-design standards would reduce PM2.5 emission by 70% relative to 2005 (the current legislation only by 40%), and in 2050 these standards would lead to 83% lower emissions, while the baseline results in only 50% relative to 2005. These calculations assume no premature scrapping of existing equipment. These emission reductions would account for a sizeable fraction of the total PM2.5 emissions from all sectors in the EU-27. In 2020, introduction of the Eco-design standards would cut total PM2.5 by 7%, in 2030 by 16%, and in 2050 by almost 20%. Black carbon emissions from small combustion sources, which have recently received increasing attention because of their negative health and climate effects, would be reduced by the Eco-design standards by 25% in 2020 and by 75% in 2050. Although small combustion sources make only limited contributions to NMVOC emissions (8% in 2005), Eco-design standards could reduce these emissions in 2020 by 50% relative to 2005 (compared to a 25% cut envisaged for the baseline), by 80% instead of 50% in 2030, and by more than 90% compared to 60% in 2050. Even larger emission reductions can be achieved if Eco-design standards would also affect energy efficiency standards, as highlighted by a scenario with ambitious assumptions on energy efficiency improvements for small sources. However, this scenario assumes rapid turnover of existing (inefficient) devices including premature scrapping before the end of its regular lifetime. In reality, such a scenario would be difficult to realize in the short run, since it would require a very fast replacement of the existing capital stock by new equipment and unlimited availability of pellets

Exploring Implications of New EU Legislation for Animal Welfare and of Trends in Organic Farming on Ammonia Emissions

Animal welfare legislation in the EU, i.e., the EU Directives for the protection of farm animals coming into force by 2013 the latest, and the EU Regulation on organic farming might lead to an increase in ammonia (NH3) emissions. A review of the available, although rather limited, literature reveals that animal-friendly housings systems, in line with welfare legislation, are not ammonia-neutral compared to the conventional housing systems. NH3 emissions per pig from animal-friendly pig houses vary considerably. Emissions from houses that comply with the EU directives differ between -25 percent and +50 percent, while emissions from organic pig houses range from about -10 percent to +170 percent compared to the reference values for conventional houses. The main reason for higher emissions is associated with additional outdoor area required in organic farming. Careful design of housing area and appropriate management can lead to lower emissions than in conventional systems. NH3 emissions from animal-friendly aviary systems for laying hens were around threefold the emission per hen from battery cages. For organic cattle, emissions from housing are about 50 percent higher than from conventionally kept cattle. The impact of increased penetration of animal-friendly houses and organic farming on NH3 emissions was analyzed with the GAINS model. We have developed two scenarios using low and high emission factors and applied them to the recent national agricultural projections for 2020. For EU-27, we calculate that such a development could lead to a slight decrease or to an increase of NH3 emissions by around five percent by 2020, compared to baseline scenario. However, larger variations occur for specific animal types and countries. An increase in emissions would counteract the EU air pollution policy that calls for a reduction of NH3 emissions by 27 percent in 2020, compared to the 2000 level. Bearing that in mind, development in animal housing systems and their impacts on NH3 emissions need to be analyzed further with more field studies and measurements

A new species of Ectrepesthoneura from Baltic amber (Diptera: Mycetophilidae)

A new species of fungus gnats of the genus Ectrepesthoneura from Baltic amber is described based on one male. The species is characterized by large cerci and deeply divided tergite IX. (Dipteron 32: 44-49)

A Simplified Model of Nitrogen Flows from Manure Management

This report describes a model to simulate release processes of trace gases from manure into the atmosphere. This "manure handling model" (MHM) provides a mass-consistent scheme to follow nitrogen and carbon compounds along the typical stages of manure treatment in animal husbandry. In each of the model compartments, which reflect the respective stages, conversion between reactive and unreactive nitrogen or carbon species is possible, as well as the release of gaseous compounds from the reactive species. We use total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) as the reactive nitrogen species, and degradable volatile solid (VSd) as the reactive carbon species. Conversion parameters, either derived from specific information, e.g. national data, or as default values, allow assessing transformation rates. As a result, the model generates emission factors for the release of nitrogen components (gaseous NH3, N2O, NOx, N2 and NO3 -- in runoff and the associated N2O emission) and CH4 for use in IIASA's integrated assessment model GAINS. Results of MHM have been compared with the German emission model GAS-EM for dairy cattle on liquid manure to demonstrate that the simplified model is able to reflect complex national information. With identical input parameters, the simplified model reproduces results of the more complex models within 1% difference for the emission of all N components and emission of CH4. MHM was also used with default input (excretion rates, emission coefficients and removal factors) to generate emission factors for all possible combinations of animals and control strategies for all European countries. However, a comparison with current GAINS emission factors reveals substantial differences due to country-specific information that is available in GAINS

Integrated Assessment of Black Carbon and Tropospheric Ozone

The Integrated Assessment of Black Carbon and Tropospheric Ozone looks into all aspects of anthropogeic emissions of black carbon and tropospheric ozone precursors, such as methane. It analyses the trends in emissions of these substances and the drivers of these emissions; summarizes the science of atmospheric processes where these substances are involved; discusses related impacts on the climatic sysem, human health, crops in vulnerable regions and ecosystems; and societal responses to the environmntal changes caused by those impacts. The Assessment examines a large number of potential measures to reduce harmful emissions, identifying a small set of specific measures that would likely produce the greatest benefits, and which could be implemented with currently available technology. An outlook up to 2070 is developed illustrating the benefits of those emission mitigation policies and mesures for human well-being and climate. The Assessment concludes that rapid mitigation of anthropogenic black carbon and tropospheric ozone precursor emissions would complement carbon dioxide reduction measures and would have immediate benefits for human well-being. The Assessment is intended to support informed decision making at all levels as a guide for assessment, planning and management for the future