The body language of dairy calves

While improving animal welfare has become an important task in both the agricultural and scientific community, increased knowledge on positive emotions in animals and on methods of assessing welfare are needed in order to continue to move forward in this endeavour. Through understanding the connection between the body language of animals and their emotional state, further progress can be made. This study assessed the ear postures, tail postures, and stepping behaviour of 16 dairy calves when exposed to four experimental stimuli expected to elicit emotional states of varying valence and arousal levels, and a control. The stimuli included feeding of concentrates, gentle stroking, the absence of social interactions/stimuli, and spraying with water. Results were then compared to body posture predictions based on previous research where ear and tail postures of dairy cows during different activities were analyzed and plotted onto an arousal/valence framework i.e. the dimensional model of core affect. Predictions for the ear postures backward, asymmetric right, and asymmetric left during a positive, low arousal emotional state showed a trend of being supported. The backward and forward ear postures of calves may be more influenced by changes in arousal, while the asymmetric right ear indicated an emotional state of positive, high arousal. The highest occurrence of stepping behaviour was displayed during the boredom stimulus, indicating that this treatment was perceived as being of high arousal by the calves, rather than low arousal as intended. Overall tail activity of the calves was low. No tail predictions were confirmed, however, a new posture of a tucked tail seemed to be representative of a negative, high arousal emotional state. Further research is needed to determine the role that age, experience, and stimuli play in regards to an animal’s emotional state and to determine the validity of using the dimensional model of core affect to predict the body language and emotional state of animals in varying situations

The effect of early environment on the adaptability of chicks

Due to the many challenges that laying hens face throughout their lives in the production system, raising hens with the ability to adapt and cope within their environment is vital from both a welfare and production standpoint. The early environment of chicks has been shown to have lasting effects on the health and well being of laying hens later in life. However, few studies have investigated the effects of early environment and adaptability. This study investigated cognitive functions and learning capabilities, which are pivotal in developing adaptation skills, of 48 laying hens at the age of 9-14 weeks using a holeboard test. Hens were raised in differing environments over two periods of rearing: early rearing from 0-4 weeks of age and current rearing from 5-15 weeks of age. The treatments consisted of choice of substrate and perch (four types of each) vs. no choice of substrate or perch (i.e. one type of each), which was changed between the two rearing periods for half of the birds, resulting in four different treatments i.e. choice/choice (CC), choice/no-choice (CN), no-choice/no-choice (NN), and no-choice/choice (NC). When habituating individually to the holeboard test, birds from treatment CC found more worms than those from treatments NN and CN (p=0.004; p=0.03). During acquisition, a significantly higher number of birds from CC and NC completed the start trials when compared to NN and CN birds (p=0.04). Furthermore, results from the reversal phase indicated that NC birds had a higher reference memory than NN birds. Overall these results suggest that having choice in the current rearing environment influenced the birds’ success in the holeboard test, which may in turn be directly related the their ability to adapt to new environments and circumstances. Supplementary studies into the critical stage of early rearing and when choice is best suited to be introduced may provide further insights into the role that choice plays on the adaptability of laying hens

The impact of prebiotic supplementation in piglets and its effect on learning and memory

The microbiota-gut-brain axis is known to have the ability to influence host physiology and behaviour. Studies have demonstrated an impact from gut microbiota on a variety of behaviours, such as learning and memory, largely through the use of rodent models. These impacts can be observed through changing the gut microbiota composition in ways such as administration of prebiotics, which are defined as “selectively fermented ingredients that confer benefits upon host health”. Beta-glucan is a known prebiotic that has been shown to promote beneficial microorganisms in the gut associated with effects on cognitive function. Pigs were used in this study to explore the impacts of early prebiotic supplementation on gut microbiota colonization and its subsequent effect on learning and memory. The effects on learning and memory were studied through the use of a standardized Tmaze test. Supplemented pigs performed slightly better in the acquisition phase of the test, though control pigs were faster and performed better in the reversal phase. A possible sex and phase interaction was observed, as female pigs were faster and had more correct trials in the acquisition phase than males, though the opposite trend was seen in the reversal phase. Overall, trends observed were weak and likely would not have reached significance, apart from the reversal phase of mean trials correct per session, where pigs supplemented with beta-glucan performed worse than control pigs. This may indicate that supplemented pigs were less flexible and may have a greater difficulty in adapting to a changing environment. These results could have implications for on-farm practices, though how exactly requires further investigation. In conclusion, further research into the interaction of prebiotics and he microbiota-gut-brain axis is needed, as well as how this interaction impacts learning and memory in pigs

Making the most of life: environmental choice during rearing enhances the ability of laying hens to take opportunities

Introduction: The potential of aviary housing for improving laying hen (Gallus gallus domesticus) welfare will be constrained if rearing conditions limit the hens’ behavioral ability to take opportunities. Incorporating theories on developmental plasticity and animal agency, this study aimed to determine: (1) whether a choice of litter and perch types during rearing would promote longlasting changes in use of novel locations and resources, and (2) the influence of timing of choice provision. Methods: Laying hen chicks were assigned to either a “Single-choice” (one litter and perch type) or “Multi-choice” environment (four litter and perch types) during “Early” (day 1-week 4) and “Late” rearing (week 5–15). The environments were switched in half of the 16 pens in week 5, resulting in a 2 × 2 factorial design with four choice environment by period combinations. The allocation of perch and litter space was the same across all treatment combinations. In week 16, all groups were moved to standard aviary laying pens (Laying period, week 16–27). Results: When first moved to the laying pens, hens with Multi-choice in either or both rearing periods were quicker to spread out in their pen than hens with Singlechoice throughout rearing. Multi-choice in Early rearing also reduced the latency to use novel elevated structures (perches and nests) in the laying pens. Multi-choice during Late rearing increased success in finding and consuming hidden mealworms (tested in weeks 9–17) and increased the proportion of eggs laid on elevated nesting trays. Numerically, hens switched from Multi-choice to Single-choice in week 5 used the outdoor range less than hens switched from Single-choice to Multi-choice. Discussion: These results support the hypothesis that offering multiple resource choices during rearing improves hens’ ability to make the most of new opportunities by being more proactive in exploring and exploiting newly available resources. In different opportunity challenges, hens showed positive outcomes in response to choice during Early, Late or both stages of rearing, suggesting that best results can be obtained by offering environmental choice throughout rearing

Increasing Environmental Complexity by Providing Different Types of Litter and Perches during Early Rearing Boosts Coping Abilities in Domestic Fowl Chicks

Early experience of a complex environment can improve biologically relevant traits related to coping abilities. However, the mechanisms underlying these positive effects have not been well explored. We hypothesized that giving chicks possibilities to express choices within relevant resources could be an important part of the mechanism, as well as a novel way to increase environmental complexity. In a balanced design, laying hen hatchlings of the white hybrid Bovans Robust were reared in a “single-choice” environment (single litter and perch type) or a “multi-choice” environment (four different litter and perch types). Immunological and behavioral indicators of chicks’ coping abilities were explored in this experimental study at three weeks of age. Chicks from “multi-choice” environments had shorter durations of tonic immobility, lower heterophil/lymphocyte ratios, higher natural antibody concentrations, and were more successful in gaining novel food rewards in a repeated opportunity test. These results imply that chicks having access to variation within resource types were less fearful, experienced less chronic stress, would be more able to cope with pathogenic challenges, and potentially had an improved learning ability. To conclude, the more complex environment, achieved by increasing chicks’ possibilities to choose, seemed to make chicks better prepared for potential challenges, boosting their adaptive capacities and their ability to make the most of opportunities

Comparing gradual debonding strategies after prolonged cow-calf contact: Stress responses, performance, and health of dairy cow and calf

We assessed effects of two-step debonding strategies in calf rearing systems with different types of prolonged cow-calf contact (CCC) on stress responses, health and performance of dairy cows and calves. Forty-eight Holstein Friesian cow-calf pairs had either: 1) full contact including suckling, where contact was reduced before weaning via fence-line separation at day 49 (FC-FS) (n = 10); 2) full contact, where contact was reduced at day 56 by fitting calves with a nose-flap (FC-NF) (n = 10); 3) partial contact (calves were housed in a pen adjacent to the cow area allowing physical contact on initiative of the dam but no suckling), where contact was reduced before weaning by moving the calf box from the wall to prevent physical contact at day 49 (PC-BW) (n = 6); 4) partial contact, where contact was reduced the week after weaning by moving the calf box away from the wall at day 63 (PC-AW) (n = 12); 5) no contact (calves were removed from dam directly after birth and housed in a calf barn), calves were weaned at day 56 (NC) (n = 10). Between weeks 7–10, we assessed physiological stress parameters, weight gain, and the health status of calves, plus general activity patterns based on accelerometer sensor data of cow-calf pairs before, during and after the debonding interventions. Additionally, calves were subjected to four consecutive behavioural tests (i.e. open field, novel object, voluntary human approach and involuntary human approach test) prior to permanent separation at day 70 and their behavioural responses were assessed via video recordings to assess fearfulness. Machine-harvested milk yields of cows were evaluated during weeks 6–12. Data were analyzed with (generalized) linear mixed models. Throughout the debonding period, FC-NF calves had an impaired growth rate (P = 0.02). In weeks 6–9, FC-FS and FC-NF cows had lower machine-harvested milk yields than PC-BW, PC-AW, and NC cows (P ≤ 0.01). We found no differences in responsiveness of calves to behavioural tests, except that NC calves exhibited more solitary play events compared to PC and FC calves in the novel object test (P = 0.002). Overall, our results imply that calves with partial CCC showed low stress responses to debonding, whereas abrupt weaning with a nose-flap during full contact seemed most stressful. Machine-harvested milk yield of FC cows seemed to recover once calves were weaned. More research into strategies to improve the process of debonding is warranted

Comparing gradual debonding strategies after prolonged cow-calf contact: Stress responses, performance, and health of dairy cow and calf

We assessed effects of two-step debonding strategies in calf rearing systems with different types of prolonged cow-calf contact (CCC) on stress responses, health and performance of dairy cows and calves. Forty-eight Holstein Friesian cow-calf pairs had either: 1) full contact including suckling, where contact was reduced before weaning via fence-line separation at day 49 (FC-FS) (n = 10); 2) full contact, where contact was reduced at day 56 by fitting calves with a nose-flap (FC-NF) (n = 10); 3) partial contact (calves were housed in a pen adjacent to the cow area allowing physical contact on initiative of the dam but no suckling), where contact was reduced before weaning by moving the calf box from the wall to prevent physical contact at day 49 (PC-BW) (n = 6); 4) partial contact, where contact was reduced the week after weaning by moving the calf box away from the wall at day 63 (PC-AW) (n = 12); 5) no contact (calves were removed from dam directly after birth and housed in a calf barn), calves were weaned at day 56 (NC) (n = 10). Between weeks 7-10, we assessed physiological stress parameters, weight gain, and the health status of calves, plus general activity patterns based on accelerometer sensor data of cow-calf pairs before, during and after the debonding interventions. Additionally, calves were subjected to four consecutive behavioural tests (i.e. open field, novel object, voluntary human approach and involuntary human approach test) prior to permanent separation at day 70 and their behavioural responses were assessed via video recordings to assess fearfulness. Machine-harvested milk yields of cows were evaluated during weeks 6-12. Data were analyzed with (generalized) linear mixed models. Throughout the debonding period, FCNF calves had an impaired growth rate (P = 0.02). In weeks 6-9, FC-FS and FC-NF cows had lower machineharvested milk yields than PC-BW, PC-AW, and NC cows (P <= 0.01). We found no differences in responsiveness of calves to behavioural tests, except that NC calves exhibited more solitary play events compared to PC and FC calves in the novel object test (P = 0.002). Overall, our results imply that calves with partial CCC showed low stress responses to debonding, whereas abrupt weaning with a nose-flap during full contact seemed most stressful. Machine-harvested milk yield of FC cows seemed to recover once calves were weaned. More research into strategies to improve the process of debonding is warranted

Increasing Environmental Complexity by Providing Different Types of Litter and Perches during Early Rearing Boosts Coping Abilities in Domestic Fowl Chicks

Early experience of a complex environment can improve biologically relevant traits related to coping abilities. However, the mechanisms underlying these positive effects have not been well explored. We hypothesized that giving chicks possibilities to express choices within relevant resources could be an important part of the mechanism, as well as a novel way to increase environmental complexity. In a balanced design, laying hen hatchlings of the white hybrid Bovans Robust were reared in a &ldquo;single-choice&rdquo; environment (single litter and perch type) or a &ldquo;multi-choice&rdquo; environment (four different litter and perch types). Immunological and behavioral indicators of chicks&rsquo; coping abilities were explored in this experimental study at three weeks of age. Chicks from &ldquo;multi-choice&rdquo; environments had shorter durations of tonic immobility, lower heterophil/lymphocyte ratios, higher natural antibody concentrations, and were more successful in gaining novel food rewards in a repeated opportunity test. These results imply that chicks having access to variation within resource types were less fearful, experienced less chronic stress, would be more able to cope with pathogenic challenges, and potentially had an improved learning ability. To conclude, the more complex environment, achieved by increasing chicks&rsquo; possibilities to choose, seemed to make chicks better prepared for potential challenges, boosting their adaptive capacities and their ability to make the most of opportunities

Calf-directed affiliative behaviour of dairy cows in two types of cow-calf contact systems

There is an interest in alternative rearing systems that allow for prolonged cow-calf contact (CCC). Yet, a better understanding of cows' affiliative behaviour in those systems is needed. We evaluated the effect of type of CCC on calf-directed affiliative behaviour in dairy cows. Cows were permitted to have either: i) partial contact (PC) with their calf; calves were housed in a pen adjacent to the cow area allowing limited physical contact on initiative of the dam but no suckling (n = 18), or ii) full contact (FC) with their calf including suckling; calves were housed together with the dams in a free stall barn (n = 20). Proximity and physical contact between the cow and her own calf were recorded between 0 and 48 h postpartum in an individual maternity pen, and from 1 to 5 weeks postpartum in a free stall barn. Data were analysed with generalized linear models, except for behaviour with excess of zero-valued data where a Kruskal Wallis test was used. Principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to identify consistency of behaviour in the maternity pen and free stall barn. After parturition, latency to onset of allogrooming did not differ among treatments (mean +/- SE, 8 +/- 3 min, P = 0.39). Throughout the first 48 h postpartum, no treatment differences were found in percentage of observed time spent allogrooming the calf (PC: 7.7 +/- 1.3%, FC: 9.5 +/- 1.5%), standing in proximity (<= 1 m radius) (PC: 22.9 +/- 2.1%, FC: 21.2 +/- 2.1%), or lying in proximity (PC: 30.5 +/- 4.3%, FC: 32.5 +/- 3.2%) (P 0.10). However, in the following 5 weeks, relative to PC cows, FC cows spent more time on average in close proximity to their calf (10.9 +/- 0.1% versus 3.1 +/- 0.4%, P < 0.001), and on allogrooming (2.1 +/- 0.2% versus 0.5 +/- 0.1%, P < 0.001). PCA revealed four components (explaining 76% of the variance). Lying in close and standing in far proximity in the maternity pen loaded (positive, negative, respectively) onto component 1, whereas physical contact and standing in close proximity in the free stall barn loaded negatively onto component 2. Standing in close proximity in the maternity pen loaded onto component 3, and standing 1-2 m near the calf in the free stall barn loaded onto component 4. Our results indicate that, in comparison with FC, PC decreases the expression of calf-directed affiliative behaviours in dairy cows, except in the 48 h following parturition. The partial CCC set-up limited the calf's accessibility, whereas calves in full CCC could initiate contact as well. Nonetheless, large interindividual differences in calf-directed affiliative behaviour were found that lacked consistency

Calf-directed affiliative behaviour of dairy cows in two types of cow-calf contact systems

There is an interest in alternative rearing systems that allow for prolonged cow-calf contact (CCC). Yet, a better understanding of cows’ affiliative behaviour in those systems is needed. We evaluated the effect of type of CCC on calf-directed affiliative behaviour in dairy cows. Cows were permitted to have either: i) partial contact (PC) with their calf; calves were housed in a pen adjacent to the cow area allowing limited physical contact on initiative of the dam but no suckling (n = 18), or ii) full contact (FC) with their calf including suckling; calves were housed together with the dams in a free stall barn (n = 20). Proximity and physical contact between the cow and her own calf were recorded between 0 and 48 h postpartum in an individual maternity pen, and from 1 to 5 weeks postpartum in a free stall barn. Data were analysed with generalized linear models, except for behaviour with excess of zero-valued data where a Kruskal Wallis test was used. Principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to identify consistency of behaviour in the maternity pen and free stall barn. After parturition, latency to onset of allogrooming did not differ among treatments (mean±SE, 8 ± 3 min, P = 0.39). Throughout the first 48 h postpartum, no treatment differences were found in percentage of observed time spent allogrooming the calf (PC: 7.7 ± 1.3%, FC: 9.5 ± 1.5%), standing in proximity (≤1 m radius) (PC: 22.9 ± 2.1%, FC: 21.2 ± 2.1%), or lying in proximity (PC: 30.5 ± 4.3%, FC: 32.5 ± 3.2%) (P > 0.10). However, in the following 5 weeks, relative to PC cows, FC cows spent more time on average in close proximity to their calf (10.9 ± 0.1% versus 3.1 ± 0.4%, P < 0.001), and on allogrooming (2.1 ± 0.2% versus 0.5 ± 0.1%, P < 0.001). PCA revealed four components (explaining 76% of the variance). Lying in close and standing in far proximity in the maternity pen loaded (positive, negative, respectively) onto component 1, whereas physical contact and standing in close proximity in the free stall barn loaded negatively onto component 2. Standing in close proximity in the maternity pen loaded onto component 3, and standing 1–2 m near the calf in the free stall barn loaded onto component 4. Our results indicate that, in comparison with FC, PC decreases the expression of calf-directed affiliative behaviours in dairy cows, except in the 48 h following parturition. The partial CCC set-up limited the calf's accessibility, whereas calves in full CCC could initiate contact as well. Nonetheless, large inter-individual differences in calf-directed affiliative behaviour were found that lacked consistency