Early medieval landscapes: Lindisfarne - a case study

This research is an integral part of an ongoing archaeological field project on the Northumbrian island of Lindisfarne (also known as Holy Island) directed by Deirdre O'Sullivan and Rob Young of the School of Archaeological Studies at the University of Leicester. The project is multi-period, and has investigated sites spanning from the Mesolithic to the industrial period. The specific aim of the work for this thesis is the reconstruction the environment contemporary with the early medieval settlement site of Green Shiel on the north shore of Lindisfarne, and to consider the relationship of environment to site function and economy. The principle aim of the work is to show how no site can be interpreted without recourse to a wide range of data sources including archaeological data, environmental evidence and historical sources. Fundamental to such a synthetic approach is the analysis of spatial scales beyond the site itself as no settlement can be interpreted in isolation from other settlements and the broader landscape. The reconstruction of the environment around the Green Shiel site is located within a broader discussion of the early medieval period in Northumberland. It is argued that the interpretation of this site, and indeed any site, is limited if off-site environmental reconstruction is not attempted. Such work should then be integrated within a broader historical framework that considers the nature of socio-economic systems that would have obviously influenced the ways in which any environment was exploited. This research was carried out as a part of the Lindisfarne Excavation Project which many people have been involved with. Other than thanking my two supervisors, Tony Brown and Deirdre 0' Sullivan, special thanks must also go to Rob Young, co-director of the Lindisfarne project. I am also indebted to a number of other people who have contributed to the project and have allowed me to consult the results of their own work, most notably Pete Boyer and Sarah Crane. I should also like to thank the following people for their assistance and advice during the period of research: Martin Bell, Neil Christie, Gerraint Coles, Tony Gould well, Graham Morgan, Andy Plater, Alex Powers, Michael Tooley, Marijke van der Veen, and David 0' Connor and Phil Davey of the English Nature NNR

Main characteristics of the investigated sites and summary results of the analysis.

<p>Main characteristics of the investigated sites and summary results of the analysis.</p

Location and chronology of the sites investigated in this study.

<p>Inset (A) location and chronology of the earliest upland dry-stone structures in the Alps with secure dates; the Iron Age Hut of Val Fenga during excavation (C).</p

Partial gas chromatograms of an acid methanol extract from a potsherd (Val Languard, sample 27).

<p>Cn:x, fatty acids with carbon length n and number of unsaturation x; square, alkanes; circle, α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acids; br, branched chain fatty acids; γ, γ-lactones; δ, δ-lactones. Inset (B): photo of the potsherd analysed, typical of the small fragments recovered. The sample was analysed using a DB-5ms capillary column (30 m × 0.250 mm × 0.25 μm) using the temperature program described in the text.</p

Plots of the Δ¹³C values for animal fat residues in archaeological pottery from the Alpine highland and foreland.

<p>Pottery vessels are from (A) Neolithic high-altitude alpine sites; (B) Bronze Age high-altitude alpine sites; (C) Iron Age high-altitude alpine sites; and (D) Late Neolithic lakeside settlements in the Alpine foreland [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0151442#pone.0151442.ref012" target="_blank">12</a>,<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0151442#pone.0151442.ref013" target="_blank">13</a>]. Mean values and ranges (±1 SD) of authentic reference fats [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0151442#pone.0151442.ref012" target="_blank">12</a>,<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0151442#pone.0151442.ref031" target="_blank">31</a>] are shown (n = number of observations) but exclude the deer samples which are likely to be absent from the high altitude sites investigated.</p

Relative Contribution of Th1 and Th17 Cells in Adaptive Immunity to <i>Bordetella pertussis</i>: Towards the Rational Design of an Improved Acellular Pertussis Vaccine

<div><p>Whooping cough caused by <i>Bordetella pertussis</i> is a re-emerging infectious disease despite the introduction of safer acellular pertussis vaccines (Pa). One explanation for this is that Pa are less protective than the more reactogenic whole cell pertussis vaccines (Pw) that they replaced. Although Pa induce potent antibody responses, and protection has been found to be associated with high concentrations of circulating IgG against vaccine antigens, it has not been firmly established that host protection induced with this vaccine is mediated solely by humoral immunity. The aim of this study was to examine the relative contribution of Th1 and Th17 cells in host immunity to infection with <i>B. pertussis</i> and in immunity induced by immunization with Pw and Pa and to use this information to help rationally design a more effective Pa. Our findings demonstrate that Th1 and Th17 both function in protective immunity induced by infection with <i>B. pertussis</i> or immunization with Pw. In contrast, a current licensed Pa, administered with alum as the adjuvant, induced Th2 and Th17 cells, but weak Th1 responses. We found that IL-1 signalling played a central role in protective immunity induced with alum-adsorbed Pa and this was associated with the induction of Th17 cells. Pa generated strong antibody and Th2 responses, but was fully protective in IL-4-defective mice, suggesting that Th2 cells were dispensable. In contrast, Pa failed to confer protective immunity in IL-17A-defective mice. Bacterial clearance mediated by Pa-induced Th17 cells was associated with cell recruitment to the lungs after challenge. Finally, protective immunity induced by an experimental Pa could be enhanced by substituting alum with a TLR agonist that induces Th1 cells. Our findings demonstrate that alum promotes protective immunity through IL-1β-induced IL-17A production, but also reveal that optimum protection against <i>B. pertussis</i> requires induction of Th1, but not Th2 cells.</p> </div

Induction of protective Th17 cells is associated with neutrophil recruitment and killing of <i>B. pertussis</i>.

<p>(A, B) WT, IL-4^−/− and IL-17A^−/− mice were immunized i.p. with Pa and challenged with <i>B. pertussis</i> as described in <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003264#ppat-1003264-g003" target="_blank">Figure 3</a>. Recruitment of GR1⁺ neutrophils and F4/80⁺ macrophages in the lungs (A) and CXCL1 and CCL3 concentrations in lung homogenates (B) following aerosol challenge with live <i>B. pertussis</i>. p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 WT + Pa or IL-4^−/− + Pa versus WT + PBS; +p<0.05, ++ p<0.01, +++ p<0.001 WT + Pa or IL-4^−/− +Pa versus IL-17A^−/− +Pa. (C) Effect of recombinant IL-17A, IL-17F or IFN-γ, in the presence of mouse serum from naive or immune mice (containing <i>B. pertussis</i> antibodies from Pa-immunized mice) on neutrophil-mediated killing of <i>B. pertussis in vitro</i>. *p<0.05, **p<0.01 versus control. Results in A and B are mean values for 4 mice per group at each time point and each panel is representative of 3 independent experiments. Results in C are mean values for triplicate assays and are representative of 3 experiments.</p

Substitution of CpG for alum promotes induction of Th1 cells, which enhances the efficacy of a laboratory-prepared pertussis vaccine.

<p>Mice were immunized i.p. twice (0 and 28 days) with PBS, laboratory-prepared Pa in PBS (Ag) or formulated with alum (Al) or CpG. Mice were challenged by exposure to an aerosol of live <i>B. pertussis</i> 14 days after the second immunization. (A) The number of CFU in the lungs were quantified at intervals after challenge. (B) <i>B. pertussis</i>-specific cytokine production by spleen cells on day of challenge. (C) <i>B. pertussis</i>-specific antibody in serum on the day of challenge. +p<0.05, ++p<0.01, +++p<0.001 CpG versus alum; *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 versus antigen in PBS. (D) WT, IL-17A^−/− or IFN-γ^−/− mice were immunized i.p. twice with a laboratory-prepared Pa formulated with CpG. Mice were challenged by exposure to an aerosol of live <i>B. pertussis</i> 14 days after the second immunization. The number of CFU in the lungs were quantified at intervals after challenge. Results are mean values for 4 mice per group at each time point and each panel (except D) is representative of 2 independent experiments.</p

IL-1RI signalling is required for induction of Th17 responses and Pa-induced protection against <i>B. pertussis</i>.

<p>IL-1RI^−/− and WT mice were immunized i.p. twice (0 and 28 days) with Pa. 14 days after the second immunization, mice were challenged by exposure to an aerosol of live <i>B. pertussis</i>. (A) The number of CFU in the lungs were quantified at intervals after challenge. (B, C) <i>B. pertussis</i>-specific cytokine production by spleen cells on the day of challenge (B) or <i>B. pertussis</i>-specific cytokine production by lung mononuclear cells 3, 7 and 10 days post challenge (C) was determined by ELISA. (D) <i>B. pertussis</i>-specific antibody in serum on the day of challenge (Co: control; KO: IL-1RI^−/−). *−/− versus WT. Results are mean values for 4 mice per group at each time point and each panel is representative of 3 independent experiments.</p

Th17 and Th1 cells mediate host immunity to <i>B. pertussis</i> in the respiratory tract of naive mice.

<p>(A–C) Naive C57BL/6 mice were exposed to an aerosol infection with <i>B. pertussis</i> and groups of 4 mice were sacrificed at the indicated time points. (A) Lung mononuclear cells were stimulated with heat-killed <i>B. pertussis</i> and after 3 days of culture IL-17A was quantified in supernatants by ELISA. (B–C) lung mononuclear cells were incubated with brefeldin-A for 1 h and intracellular cytokine staining for IL-17A, together with surface staining for CD4 was performed, followed by FACS analysis. Results are expressed as mean frequencies of IL-17A⁺CD4⁺ cells (B), with sample FACS plots (C) (D–E) C57BL/6 WT and IL-17A^−/− mice were aerosol challenged with <i>B. pertussis</i> and groups of 4 mice were sacrificed at the indicated time points. CFU counts were performed on lung homogenates (D) ** p<0.01 IL-17A^−/− versus WT. Neutrophil recruitment was determined by FACS analysis on lung lavage (E). (F) Spleen cells from IFN-γ^−/− or WT mice that had cleared a respiratory infection with <i>B. pertussis</i> were stimulated <i>in vitro</i> with killed <i>B. pertussis</i> and IL-12 (Th1) or IL-1β and IL-23 (Th17) respectively. After 4 days of culture surviving cells were harvested and <i>B. pertussis</i>-specific Th1, Th17 or both (10×10⁶) were transferred to naive mice, which were aerosol challenged with live <i>B. pertussis</i> 24 hours later. Naive mice that did not receive a cell transfer and mice injected with T cells from a naive mouse were used as controls. The course of infection was followed by performing CFU counts on the lungs at intervals after challenge. +p<0.05, +++ p<0.001 Th1+Th17 versus control; ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001 Th17 versus control. Results (except panel C) are mean values for 4 mice per group at each time point and each panel is representative of either 3 to 4 independent experiments.</p