A test of the testing effect: Acquiring problem-solving skills from worked examples.

Van Gog, T., & Kester, L. (2012). A test of the testing effect: Acquiring problem-solving skills from worked examples. Cognitive Science, 36, 1532-1541. doi:10.1111/cogs.12002The „testing effect‟ refers to the finding that after an initial study opportunity, testing is more effective for long-term retention than restudying. The testing effect seems robust and is a finding from the field of cognitive science that has important implications for education. However, it is unclear whether this effect also applies to the acquisition of problem-solving skills, which is important to establish given the key role problem solving plays in for instance math and science education. Worked examples are an effective and efficient way of acquiring problem-solving skills. Forty students either only studied worked examples (SSSS) or engaged in testing after studying an example by solving an isomorphic problem (STST). Surprisingly, results showed equal performance in both conditions on an immediate retention test after five minutes, but the SSSS condition outperformed the STST condition on a delayed retention test after one week. These findings suggest the testing effect might not apply to acquiring problem-solving skills from worked examples.This research was funded by a Veni Grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) awarded to Tamara van Gog (# 451-08-003). During the realization of this work, Liesbeth Kester was also supported by a Veni grant from NWO (# 451-07-007)

Cognitive tasks and learning

Kester, L., & Kirschner, P. A. (2012). Cognitive tasks and learning. In N. Seel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning (pp. 619-622). New York, NY: Springer.Cognitive tasks are those undertakings that require a person to mentally process new information (i.e., acquire and organize knowledge / learn) and allow them to recall, retrieve that information from memory and to use that information at a later time in the same or similar situations (i.e., transfer)

Cognitive load theory and multimedia learning, task characteristics, and learning engagement: The current state of the art

Kirschner, F., Kester, L., & Corbalan, G. (2011). Cognitive load theory and multimedia learning, task characteristics, and learner engagement: The current state of the art. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 1-4. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.003This special issue consists of 16 empirical papers, as well as a discussion based on the Third International Cognitive Load Theory Conference held at the Open Universiteit (Heerlen, The Netherlands) in 2009. All papers focus on improving instructional design from a cognitive load theory (CLT: Sweller, 1988; Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998; Van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005) perspective. They cover a wide variety of topics in which learner characteristics, tasks characteristics, and the interaction between both are studied in, new, innovative, but also traditional ways, thereby providing an overview of the current state of the art on CLT research. The overarching goal of all studies is to gain more understanding and insight into the optimal conditions under which learning can be successful, and students will be able to apply their acquired knowledge and skills in new or familiar problem solving situations. Together, the papers comprise three ways in which this overarching goal is reached: (1) by studying multimedia learning environments, (2) by studying different characteristics of a learning task and, (3) by studying how learners can be actively engaged in the learning process. Although, the research focus of most papers fit nicely within these research topics, some overlap is inevitable. The categorization has been made on the basis of the most prominent research focus and findings of each study

Combining shared control with variability over surface features: Effects on transfer test performance and task involvement

Corbalan, G., Kester, L., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2009). Combining shared control with variability over surface features: Effects on transfer test performance and task involvement. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 290-298.Positive effects of learner control decrease when learners do not perceive the control given to them, make suboptimal choices, or are cognitively overloaded by the amount of choice. This study proposes shared control (i.e., learners choose from a pre-selection of suitable tasks) over highly variable tasks to tackle these problems. Ninety-four students participated in a 2 x 2 factorial experiment with the factors control (system, shared) and variability of surface features (low, high). Results show superior effects on training performance, transfer test performance, and task involvement of shared control when learners can choose from pre-selected tasks with surface features that are different from the surface features of previous tasks

Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving

Van Gog, T., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2010, August). Effects of worked examples, example-problem pairs, and problem-example pairs compared to problem solving. Paper presented at the Biannual EARLI SIG meeting of Instructional design and Learning and instruction with computers, Ulm, Germany.Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies more heavily on example study is more effective for learning than instruction consisting of problem solving. However, ‘a heavier reliance on example study’ has been implemented in different ways, using worked examples only, example-problem pairs, or problem-example pairs. Despite a large amount of research on example-based learning, these three strategies have not been compared to each other and to problem solving in a single study. Moreover, effects on cognitive load of these different strategies have not yet been systematically compared. Therefore, this study investigated the effects on cognitive load and learning of example study only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and problem solving only. Results show that it is not strictly necessary to alternate example study and problem solving: example study only and example-problem pairs were more effective and efficient than problem solving only and problem-example pairs

The Testing Effect for Learning Principles and Procedures from Texts

The authors explored whether a testing effect occurs not only for retention of facts but also for application of principles and procedures. For that purpose, 38 high school students either repeatedly studied a text on probability calculations or studied the text, took a test on the content, restudied the text, and finally took the test a second time. Results show that testing not only leads to better retention of facts than restudying, but also to better application of acquired knowledge (i.e., principles and procedures) in high school statistics. In other words, testing seems not only to benefit fact retention, but also positively affects deeper learning

Preliminary investigation of a CFD-assisted virtual reality experience in engineering education

Virtual reality has become a significant asset to diversify tools in the support of engineering education and training. The cognitive and behavioral advantages of virtual reality (VR) can help lecturers reduce entry barriers to concepts that students struggle with. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are imperative tools intensively utilized in the design and analysis of chemical engineering problems. Although CFD simulation tools can be directly applied in engineering education, they bring several challenges in the implementation and operation for both students and lecturers. In this study, to tackle these challenges, we developed the “Virtual Garage” as a taskcentered educational VR application with CFD simulations. The Virtual Garage is composed of a holistic immersive experience to educate students through a real-life engineering problem solved with CFD simulation data using a VR headset. The prototype is tested by graduate students (n=24). Participants assessed usability, user experience, task load and cybersickness via standard questionnaires together with self-reported questions and a semi-structured interview. Preliminary results reflect that the Virtual Garage is well-received by participants. We identify features that can further enhance the usability and user experience

The Effects of Different Testing Methods on Retention and Comprehension of Expository

Dirkx, K. J. H., Kester, L., & Kirschner, P. A. (2011). The Effects of Different Testing Methods on Retention and Comprehension of Expository. In N. Mansour (Ed.), Programme book JURE 2011. Junior Researchers of EARLI (pp. 125). Exeter, UK: University of Exeter.In the present research the effects of different testing methods (i.e., free recall, concept mapping, and summarizing) versus restudy on retention and comprehension were investigated.This research was financially supported by the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research (NWO 451.07.007)

Learning from Questions During a Museum Visit

Dirkx, K. J. H., Kester, L., & Kirschner, P. A. (2013, 30 August). Learning from Questions During a Museum Visit. Paper presented at the meeting of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction, Munich, Germany.This paper describes the results of a museum study involving worksheets