Van Gog, T., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2010, August). Effects of worked examples, example-problem pairs, and problem-example pairs compared to problem solving. Paper presented at the Biannual EARLI SIG meeting of Instructional design and Learning and instruction with computers, Ulm, Germany.Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies more heavily on example study is more effective for learning than instruction consisting of problem solving. However, ‘a heavier reliance on example study’ has been implemented in different ways, using worked examples only, example-problem pairs, or problem-example pairs. Despite a large amount of research on example-based learning, these three strategies have not been compared to each other and to problem solving in a single study. Moreover, effects on cognitive load of these different strategies have not yet been systematically compared. Therefore, this study investigated the effects on cognitive load and learning of example study only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and problem solving only. Results show that it is not strictly necessary to alternate example study and problem solving: example study only and example-problem pairs were more effective and efficient than problem solving only and problem-example pairs

Kester, Liesbeth

Paas, Fred

Van Gog, Tamara

English

DSpace at Open Universiteit Nederland

Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and 
Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving 
 
Tamara van Gog 
Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam 
P.O.Box 1738, 3000DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands 
vangog@fsw.eur.nl  
 
Liesbeth Kester 
Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies, Open University of The Netherlands 
P.O.Box 2960, 6417 PC Heerlen, The Netherlands 
Liesbeth.kester@ou.nl   
 
Fred Paas 
Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam 
P.O.Box 1738, 3000DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands 
paas@fsw.eur.nl  
 
 
Abstract. Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies more heavily on example study is more effective 
for learning than instruction consisting of problem solving. However, ‘a heavier reliance on example study’ has 
been implemented in different ways, using worked examples only, example-problem pairs, or problem-example 
pairs. Despite a large amount of research on example-based learning, these three strategies have not been 
compared to each other and to problem solving in a single study. Moreover, effects on cognitive load of these 
different strategies have not yet been systematically compared. Therefore, this study investigated the effects on 
cognitive load and learning of example study only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and problem 
solving only. Results show that it is not strictly necessary to alternate example study and problem solving: 
example study only and example-problem pairs were more effective and efficient than problem solving only and 
problem-example pairs. 
 
Keywords: worked examples; problem solving; cognitive load 
 
Introduction 
Whereas conventional problems contain only a description of “givens” (e.g., how fast a car accelerates 
and its average velocity) along with a goal statement (e.g., ‘calculate how far the car has travelled’), 
worked examples additionally show learners the worked-out solution steps required to reach the goal. 
Research has shown that for novices, instruction that relies more heavily on worked example study is 
more effective for learning and transfer than instruction consisting of problem solving, and is also 
often more efficient, in that this higher learning is reached with less investment of time or mental 
effort (for reviews, see Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000; Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 
1998). This is known as the ‘worked example effect’ (Sweller et al.). 
Placing more emphasis on example study during instruction can be done in different ways. A few 
studies have compared the effects of example study only to problem solving only, and found example 
study to be more effective for learning and transfer as well as more efficient in terms of mental effort 
investment (Nievelstein, Van Gog, Van Dijck, & Boshuizen, 2010; Van Gerven, Paas, Van 
Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; Van Gog, Paas, & Van Merriënboer, 2006). Most studies, however, 
have alternated example study with problem solving. Several studies have shown that example-
problem pairs were more effective for learning and transfer than problem solving only (e.g., Cooper & 
Sweller, 1987; Sweller & Cooper, 1985). Sweller and Cooper (1985) mention that engaging in solving 
a similar problem immediately after example study may be more motivating for students, because it is 
more active than studying another example would be. A few studies have investigated the use of 
problem-example pairs (e.g., Reisslein, Atkinson, Seeling, and Reisslein, 2006; Stark, Gruber, Renkl, 
& Mandel, 2000), arguing that when learners first experience deficiencies in their performance during 
problem solving, they may be more motivated to study the example and may focus on the steps that 
they could not solve. Even though many of the above mentioned studies were inspired by cognitive 
load theory (Sweller et al., 1998) not all of them addressed the effects of cognitive load imposed by 
the by the different example-based learning strategies. 
Despite the substantial amount of research that has been conducted on the effectiveness of each of 
those different strategies, no comparison has been made between all those strategies in a single study. 
Therefore, this study compared the effects of examples only, example-problem pairs, problem-
example pairs, and to problem solving only on novices’ cognitive load and learning.  
 
Method 
Participants 
Participants were 103 secondary education students from two Dutch schools (48 male; age M = 16.22, 
SD = 0.84). Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions: (1) problem solving 
only (n = 26), (2) problem-example pairs (n = 26), (3) example-problem pairs (n = 25), and (4) 
example study only (n = 26). 
 
Materials and procedure 
Participants first completed a prior knowledge test on electrical circuits troubleshooting (cf. Van Gog, 
Paas, & Van Merriënboer, 2008). Then, they engaged in two pairs of training tasks (i.e., four 
tasks in total) consisting of a malfunctioning parallel electrical circuit (cf. Van Gog et al., 
2006, 2008) presented on paper that participants had to ‘troubleshoot’ (i.e., diagnose the 
fault), or the solution to which they had to study (i.e., when it was presented as a worked 
example). After the training tasks, participants solved a rention test problem and a transfer test 
problem. Immediately after each example or problem in the learning or test phase, participants 
rated the amount of mental effort they invested on the 9-point rating scale developed by Paas 
(1992).  
 
Results 
Mental effort invested in the training tasks was significantly lower in the examples only and 
example-problem pairs conditions than in the problems only and problem-example pairs 
conditions. Performance on both the retention and transfer test was significantly higher in the 
examples only and example-problem pairs conditions than in the problems only and problem-example 
pairs conditions. Mental effort invested in the retention test was significantly higher in the problem-
example pairs condition than in the example-problem pairs and examples only conditions, and mental 
effort invested in the transfer test was significantly higher in the problem-example pairs than in the 
example-problem pairs condition. 
 
Discussion 
Results showed that the problem solving only and problem-example pairs conditions were less 
effective than the examples only and example-problem pairs conditions. Not only did the examples 
only and the example-problem pairs conditions significantly outperform the problem solving only and 
problem-example pairs conditions on the retention and transfer test, this higher performance was also 
reached with significantly lower investment of mental effort during the training. This is indicative of 
higher efficiency in terms of the learning process, that is, in terms of the cognitive ‘costs’ and benefits 
of training (see Van Gog & Paas, 2008). 
 
References 
Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: 
Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70, 
181-214. 
Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on 
mathematical problem-solving transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 347-362. 
Nievelstein, F., Van Gog, T., Van Dijck, G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2010). The worked example and 
expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases. Manuscript 
submitted for publication. 
Paas, F. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A 
cognitive load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 429-434. 
Reisslein, J., Atkinson, R. K., Seeling, P., & Reisslein, M. (2006). Encountering the expertise reversal 
effect with a computer-based environment on electrical circuit analysis. Learning and Instruction, 
16, 92-103. 
Stark, R., Gruber, H., Renkl, A. & Mandl, H. (2000). Instruktionale Effekte einer kombinierten 
Lernmethode: Zahlt sich die Kombination von Lösungsbeispielen und Problemlöseaufgaben aus? 
[Instructional effects of a combined learning method: Does the combination of worked-out 
examples and problem-solving tasks pay off?] Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 14, 205-
217. 
Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving 
in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 59-89. 
Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional 
design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-295. 
Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2002). Cognitive load 
theory and aging: Effects of worked examples on training efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 12, 
87-105. 
Van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008). Instructional efficiency: Revisiting the original construct in 
educational research. Educational Psychologist, 43, 16-26. 
Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2006). Effects of process-oriented worked 
examples on troubleshooting transfer performance. Learning and Instruction, 16, 154-164. 
Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008). Effects of studying sequences of process-
oriented and product-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer efficiency. Learning 
and Instruction, 18, 211-222. 


Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving

Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies more heavily on example study is more effective for learning than instruction consisting of problem solving. However, ‘a heavier reliance on example study’ has been implemented in different ways, using worked examples only, example-problem pairs, or problem-example pairs. Despite a large amount of research on example-based learning, these three strategies have not been compared to each other and to problem solving in a single study. Moreover, effects on cognitive load of these different strategies have not yet been systematically compared. Therefore, this study investigated the effects on cognitive load and learning of example study only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and problem solving only. Results show that it is not strictly necessary to alternate example study and problem solving: example study only and example-problem pairs were more effective and efficient than problem solving only and problem-example pairs

Open University of the Netherlands Research Portal

Open Universiteit www.ou.nl Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, andProblem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem SolvingCitation for published version (APA):Van Gog, T., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2010). Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving.Document status and date:Published: 28/10/2010Document Version:Peer reviewed versionDocument license:CC BY-SAPlease check the document version of this publication:• A submitted manuscript is the version of the article upon submission and before peer-review. There can be important differences betweenthe submitted version and the official published version of record. People interested in the research are advised to contact the author for thefinal version of the publication, or visit the DOI to the publisher's website.• The final author version and the galley proof are versions of the publication after peer review.• The final published version features the final layout of the paper including the volume, issue and page numbers.Link to publicationGeneral rightsCopyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright ownersand it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights.• Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research.• You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain• You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal.If the publication is distributed under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the “Taverne” license above, pleasefollow below link for the End User Agreement:https://www.ou.nl/taverne-agreementTake down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at:pure-support@ou.nlproviding details and we will investigate your claim.Downloaded from https://research.ou.nl/ on date: 16 Jul. 2023Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving  Tamara van Gog Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam P.O.Box 1738, 3000DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands vangog@fsw.eur.nl   Liesbeth Kester Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies, Open University of The Netherlands P.O.Box 2960, 6417 PC Heerlen, The Netherlands Liesbeth.kester@ou.nl    Fred Paas Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam P.O.Box 1738, 3000DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands paas@fsw.eur.nl    Abstract. Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies more heavily on example study is more effective for learning than instruction consisting of problem solving. However, ‘a heavier reliance on example study’ has been implemented in different ways, using worked examples only, example-problem pairs, or problem-example pairs. Despite a large amount of research on example-based learning, these three strategies have not been compared to each other and to problem solving in a single study. Moreover, effects on cognitive load of these different strategies have not yet been systematically compared. Therefore, this study investigated the effects on cognitive load and learning of example study only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and problem solving only. Results show that it is not strictly necessary to alternate example study and problem solving: example study only and example-problem pairs were more effective and efficient than problem solving only and problem-example pairs.  Keywords: worked examples; problem solving; cognitive load  Introduction Whereas conventional problems contain only a description of “givens” (e.g., how fast a car accelerates and its average velocity) along with a goal statement (e.g., ‘calculate how far the car has travelled’), worked examples additionally show learners the worked-out solution steps required to reach the goal. Research has shown that for novices, instruction that relies more heavily on worked example study is more effective for learning and transfer than instruction consisting of problem solving, and is also often more efficient, in that this higher learning is reached with less investment of time or mental effort (for reviews, see Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000; Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). This is known as the ‘worked example effect’ (Sweller et al.). Placing more emphasis on example study during instruction can be done in different ways. A few studies have compared the effects of example study only to problem solving only, and found example study to be more effective for learning and transfer as well as more efficient in terms of mental effort investment (Nievelstein, Van Gog, Van Dijck, & Boshuizen, 2010; Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; Van Gog, Paas, & Van Merriënboer, 2006). Most studies, however, have alternated example study with problem solving. Several studies have shown that example-problem pairs were more effective for learning and transfer than problem solving only (e.g., Cooper & Sweller, 1987; Sweller & Cooper, 1985). Sweller and Cooper (1985) mention that engaging in solving a similar problem immediately after example study may be more motivating for students, because it is more active than studying another example would be. A few studies have investigated the use of problem-example pairs (e.g., Reisslein, Atkinson, Seeling, and Reisslein, 2006; Stark, Gruber, Renkl, & Mandel, 2000), arguing that when learners first experience deficiencies in their performance during problem solving, they may be more motivated to study the example and may focus on the steps that they could not solve. Even though many of the above mentioned studies were inspired by cognitive load theory (Sweller et al., 1998) not all of them addressed the effects of cognitive load imposed by the by the different example-based learning strategies. Despite the substantial amount of research that has been conducted on the effectiveness of each of those different strategies, no comparison has been made between all those strategies in a single study. Therefore, this study compared the effects of examples only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and to problem solving only on novices’ cognitive load and learning.   Method Participants Participants were 103 secondary education students from two Dutch schools (48 male; age M = 16.22, SD = 0.84). Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions: (1) problem solving only (n = 26), (2) problem-example pairs (n = 26), (3) example-problem pairs (n = 25), and (4) example study only (n = 26).  Materials and procedure Participants first completed a prior knowledge test on electrical circuits troubleshooting (cf. Van Gog, Paas, & Van Merriënboer, 2008). Then, they engaged in two pairs of training tasks (i.e., four tasks in total) consisting of a malfunctioning parallel electrical circuit (cf. Van Gog et al., 2006, 2008) presented on paper that participants had to ‘troubleshoot’ (i.e., diagnose the fault), or the solution to which they had to study (i.e., when it was presented as a worked example). After the training tasks, participants solved a rention test problem and a transfer test problem. Immediately after each example or problem in the learning or test phase, participants rated the amount of mental effort they invested on the 9-point rating scale developed by Paas (1992).   Results Mental effort invested in the training tasks was significantly lower in the examples only and example-problem pairs conditions than in the problems only and problem-example pairs conditions. Performance on both the retention and transfer test was significantly higher in the examples only and example-problem pairs conditions than in the problems only and problem-example pairs conditions. Mental effort invested in the retention test was significantly higher in the problem-example pairs condition than in the example-problem pairs and examples only conditions, and mental effort invested in the transfer test was significantly higher in the problem-example pairs than in the example-problem pairs condition.  Discussion Results showed that the problem solving only and problem-example pairs conditions were less effective than the examples only and example-problem pairs conditions. Not only did the examples only and the example-problem pairs conditions significantly outperform the problem solving only and problem-example pairs conditions on the retention and transfer test, this higher performance was also reached with significantly lower investment of mental effort during the training. This is indicative of higher efficiency in terms of the learning process, that is, in terms of the cognitive ‘costs’ and benefits of training (see Van Gog & Paas, 2008).  References Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70, 181-214. Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 347-362. Nievelstein, F., Van Gog, T., Van Dijck, G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2010). The worked example and expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases. Manuscript submitted for publication. Paas, F. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 429-434. Reisslein, J., Atkinson, R. K., Seeling, P., & Reisslein, M. (2006). Encountering the expertise reversal effect with a computer-based environment on electrical circuit analysis. Learning and Instruction, 16, 92-103. Stark, R., Gruber, H., Renkl, A. & Mandl, H. (2000). Instruktionale Effekte einer kombinierten Lernmethode: Zahlt sich die Kombination von Lösungsbeispielen und Problemlöseaufgaben aus? [Instructional effects of a combined learning method: Does the combination of worked-out examples and problem-solving tasks pay off?] Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 14, 205-217. Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 59-89. Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-295. Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2002). Cognitive load theory and aging: Effects of worked examples on training efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 12, 87-105. Van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008). Instructional efficiency: Revisiting the original construct in educational research. Educational Psychologist, 43, 16-26. Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2006). Effects of process-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer performance. Learning and Instruction, 16, 154-164. Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008). Effects of studying sequences of process-oriented and product-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 18, 211-222. 

Open Universiteit www.ou.nl Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, andProblem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem SolvingCitation for published version (APA):Van Gog, T., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2010). Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving.Document status and date:Published: 28/10/2010Document Version:Peer reviewed versionDocument license:CC BY-SAPlease check the document version of this publication:• A submitted manuscript is the version of the article upon submission and before peer-review. There can be important differences betweenthe submitted version and the official published version of record. People interested in the research are advised to contact the author for thefinal version of the publication, or visit the DOI to the publisher's website.• The final author version and the galley proof are versions of the publication after peer review.• The final published version features the final layout of the paper including the volume, issue and page numbers.Link to publicationGeneral rightsCopyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright ownersand it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights.• Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research.• You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain• You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal.If the publication is distributed under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the “Taverne” license above, pleasefollow below link for the End User Agreement:https://www.ou.nl/taverne-agreementTake down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at:pure-support@ou.nlproviding details and we will investigate your claim.Downloaded from https://research.ou.nl/ on date: 15 Jul. 2023Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving  Tamara van Gog Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam P.O.Box 1738, 3000DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands vangog@fsw.eur.nl   Liesbeth Kester Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies, Open University of The Netherlands P.O.Box 2960, 6417 PC Heerlen, The Netherlands Liesbeth.kester@ou.nl    Fred Paas Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam P.O.Box 1738, 3000DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands paas@fsw.eur.nl    Abstract. Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies more heavily on example study is more effective for learning than instruction consisting of problem solving. However, ‘a heavier reliance on example study’ has been implemented in different ways, using worked examples only, example-problem pairs, or problem-example pairs. Despite a large amount of research on example-based learning, these three strategies have not been compared to each other and to problem solving in a single study. Moreover, effects on cognitive load of these different strategies have not yet been systematically compared. Therefore, this study investigated the effects on cognitive load and learning of example study only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and problem solving only. Results show that it is not strictly necessary to alternate example study and problem solving: example study only and example-problem pairs were more effective and efficient than problem solving only and problem-example pairs.  Keywords: worked examples; problem solving; cognitive load  Introduction Whereas conventional problems contain only a description of “givens” (e.g., how fast a car accelerates and its average velocity) along with a goal statement (e.g., ‘calculate how far the car has travelled’), worked examples additionally show learners the worked-out solution steps required to reach the goal. Research has shown that for novices, instruction that relies more heavily on worked example study is more effective for learning and transfer than instruction consisting of problem solving, and is also often more efficient, in that this higher learning is reached with less investment of time or mental effort (for reviews, see Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000; Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). This is known as the ‘worked example effect’ (Sweller et al.). Placing more emphasis on example study during instruction can be done in different ways. A few studies have compared the effects of example study only to problem solving only, and found example study to be more effective for learning and transfer as well as more efficient in terms of mental effort investment (Nievelstein, Van Gog, Van Dijck, & Boshuizen, 2010; Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; Van Gog, Paas, & Van Merriënboer, 2006). Most studies, however, have alternated example study with problem solving. Several studies have shown that example-problem pairs were more effective for learning and transfer than problem solving only (e.g., Cooper & Sweller, 1987; Sweller & Cooper, 1985). Sweller and Cooper (1985) mention that engaging in solving a similar problem immediately after example study may be more motivating for students, because it is more active than studying another example would be. A few studies have investigated the use of problem-example pairs (e.g., Reisslein, Atkinson, Seeling, and Reisslein, 2006; Stark, Gruber, Renkl, & Mandel, 2000), arguing that when learners first experience deficiencies in their performance during problem solving, they may be more motivated to study the example and may focus on the steps that they could not solve. Even though many of the above mentioned studies were inspired by cognitive load theory (Sweller et al., 1998) not all of them addressed the effects of cognitive load imposed by the by the different example-based learning strategies. Despite the substantial amount of research that has been conducted on the effectiveness of each of those different strategies, no comparison has been made between all those strategies in a single study. Therefore, this study compared the effects of examples only, example-problem pairs, problem-example pairs, and to problem solving only on novices’ cognitive load and learning.   Method Participants Participants were 103 secondary education students from two Dutch schools (48 male; age M = 16.22, SD = 0.84). Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions: (1) problem solving only (n = 26), (2) problem-example pairs (n = 26), (3) example-problem pairs (n = 25), and (4) example study only (n = 26).  Materials and procedure Participants first completed a prior knowledge test on electrical circuits troubleshooting (cf. Van Gog, Paas, & Van Merriënboer, 2008). Then, they engaged in two pairs of training tasks (i.e., four tasks in total) consisting of a malfunctioning parallel electrical circuit (cf. Van Gog et al., 2006, 2008) presented on paper that participants had to ‘troubleshoot’ (i.e., diagnose the fault), or the solution to which they had to study (i.e., when it was presented as a worked example). After the training tasks, participants solved a rention test problem and a transfer test problem. Immediately after each example or problem in the learning or test phase, participants rated the amount of mental effort they invested on the 9-point rating scale developed by Paas (1992).   Results Mental effort invested in the training tasks was significantly lower in the examples only and example-problem pairs conditions than in the problems only and problem-example pairs conditions. Performance on both the retention and transfer test was significantly higher in the examples only and example-problem pairs conditions than in the problems only and problem-example pairs conditions. Mental effort invested in the retention test was significantly higher in the problem-example pairs condition than in the example-problem pairs and examples only conditions, and mental effort invested in the transfer test was significantly higher in the problem-example pairs than in the example-problem pairs condition.  Discussion Results showed that the problem solving only and problem-example pairs conditions were less effective than the examples only and example-problem pairs conditions. Not only did the examples only and the example-problem pairs conditions significantly outperform the problem solving only and problem-example pairs conditions on the retention and transfer test, this higher performance was also reached with significantly lower investment of mental effort during the training. This is indicative of higher efficiency in terms of the learning process, that is, in terms of the cognitive ‘costs’ and benefits of training (see Van Gog & Paas, 2008).  References Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70, 181-214. Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 347-362. Nievelstein, F., Van Gog, T., Van Dijck, G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2010). The worked example and expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases. Manuscript submitted for publication. Paas, F. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 429-434. Reisslein, J., Atkinson, R. K., Seeling, P., & Reisslein, M. (2006). Encountering the expertise reversal effect with a computer-based environment on electrical circuit analysis. Learning and Instruction, 16, 92-103. Stark, R., Gruber, H., Renkl, A. & Mandl, H. (2000). Instruktionale Effekte einer kombinierten Lernmethode: Zahlt sich die Kombination von Lösungsbeispielen und Problemlöseaufgaben aus? [Instructional effects of a combined learning method: Does the combination of worked-out examples and problem-solving tasks pay off?] Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 14, 205-217. Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 59-89. Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-295. Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2002). Cognitive load theory and aging: Effects of worked examples on training efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 12, 87-105. Van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008). Instructional efficiency: Revisiting the original construct in educational research. Educational Psychologist, 43, 16-26. Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2006). Effects of process-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer performance. Learning and Instruction, 16, 154-164. Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008). Effects of studying sequences of process-oriented and product-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 18, 211-222. 

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Effects of Worked Examples, Example-Problem Pairs, and Problem-Example Pairs Compared to Problem Solving

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