Contribution of systems thinking and complex adaptive system attributes to sustainable food production: Example from a climate-smart village

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) conceptually has the potential to contribute to the sustainable development goals of achieving zero hunger, reducing land degradation, eliminating poverty, tackling climate change, and promoting gender equality. The scaling-up needed to achieve goals of CSA represents a challenge, as it entails understanding synergies between often opposing socioeconomic and environmental priorities and trade-offs over temporal and spatial scales. In this paper, we tested new approaches to support scaling-up of sustainable food production through investigating the contribution of systems thinking as a conceptual approach and complex adaptive system (CAS) attributes as a framework for analysis of CSA. This was done through examining (i) to what extent CSA represents a CAS and (ii) what contribution systems thinking and CAS attributes can make to understanding and scaling-up sustainable food production systems through CSA. The CSA situation was conceptualized through systems thinking sessions with women farmers in the climate-smart village (CSV) of Doggoh-Jirapa, northern Ghana, and was guided by the Distinctions, Systems, Relationships and Perspectives (DSRP) framework. Systems thinking, and CAS attributes provide system-wide understanding of elements, dynamics and trade-offs over temporal and spatial scale in selected agri-food systems. As such it could aid horizontal and vertical scaling-up by informing policy developoment and selection of a context-specific portfolio of technologies and practices at landscape and farm levels to achieve synergies between goals. In this study, systems thinking enabled women farmers in the CSV to identify income-generating and tree planting activities, with desirable simultaneous system-wide impact. The paper calls for further testing of tools, approaches, and methods that enable dynamic systems thinking to inform scaling-up efforts, while embracing the transdisciplinary nature and complexity of CSA as a constituent of the food production system

Using Soil and Water Conservation Contests for Extension: Experiences from the Bolivian Mountain Valleys

Soil and water conservation (SWC) contests among farmer groups were organized in five rural villages in the Bolivian mountain valleys. The contests were aimed at quickly achieving widespread sustainable results. This article analyzes the effectiveness of these contests as an extension tool. Mixed results were obtained. In three villages, participation rates in the SWC activities introduced in the contests were still high even 2 years after project withdrawal. These were all villages where a solid foundation for sustainable development had been laid before the contests were held. Two years later, most families were still involved in maintenance of the SWC practices introduced in the contests, and many farmers had started to experiment with different soil management practices. However, replications of these SWC practices were not widespread, Conservation Leaders did not continue with their training activities, and the quality of maintenance of the practices was often not satisfactory. In order to become a more effective extension tool and achieve widespread impact, SWC contests must receive continued support by a catalyst agency. Moreover, other SWC contests should also be organized in which practices are not predefined. Given that SWC contests are a low-budget extension tool, local municipalities could become more actively involved

Modelling and mapping erosion in smallholder agro-ecosystems, Tanzania

The West Usambara Highlands in north-eastern Tanzania have many smallholder agro-ecosystems with unknown composition, management, and vulnerability to erosion. Their specific locations and spatial extent are difficult to trace by satellite images or remote sensing imagery alone. To address these limitations, we combined ground soil surveys, geographic information system, and erosion modelling to (a) locate and map smallholder agro-ecosystems, (b) determine their biophysical characteristics, and (c) model their soil losses. Land resource information was collected from 301 random 0.1-ha plots sampled from a total area of 200 km2. Annual soil losses were estimated using the universal soil loss equation. The study located six dominant agro-ecosystems with the following spatial extent: maize-bean (24.9%), maize-bean-agroforestry (31.2%), maize-bean-agroforestry-high value trees (18.9%), tree farms (7.0%), forests (15.6%), and grazing lands (2.3%). Agroforestry and other tree-based agro-ecosystems dominate the area due to historical land use change and later institutional interventions. This study finds combined use of soil surveys, geographic information system, and modelling to be reliable in locating, mapping, and assessing soil losses in smallholder agro-ecosystems. The agro-ecosystems differ significantly (p < 0.05) in slope, vegetation cover, soil conditions, and soil losses. Soil loss in the maize-bean agro-ecosystem (28.3 t ha−1 yr−1) was 18 times higher compared with natural forests (1.57 t ha−1 yr−1) due to lower soil cover and inefficient conservation and cultivation practices. Our results show that adoption of soil conservation measures and improved vegetation cover technologies across the agro-ecosystems reduces soil losses by 37% and increases organic carbon levels by 16%

Modelling and mapping erosion in smallholder agro-ecosystems, Tanzania

The West Usambara Highlands in north-eastern Tanzania have many smallholder agro-ecosystems with unknown composition, management, and vulnerability to erosion. Their specific locations and spatial extent are difficult to trace by satellite images or remote sensing imagery alone. To address these limitations, we combined ground soil surveys, geographic information system, and erosion modelling to (a) locate and map smallholder agro-ecosystems, (b) determine their biophysical characteristics, and (c) model their soil losses. Land resource information was collected from 301 random 0.1-ha plots sampled from a total area of 200 km2. Annual soil losses were estimated using the universal soil loss equation. The study located six dominant agro-ecosystems with the following spatial extent: maize-bean (24.9%), maize-bean-agroforestry (31.2%), maize-bean-agroforestry-high value trees (18.9%), tree farms (7.0%), forests (15.6%), and grazing lands (2.3%). Agroforestry and other tree-based agro-ecosystems dominate the area due to historical land use change and later institutional interventions. This study finds combined use of soil surveys, geographic information system, and modelling to be reliable in locating, mapping, and assessing soil losses in smallholder agro-ecosystems. The agro-ecosystems differ significantly (p −1 yr−1) was 18 times higher compared with natural forests (1.57 t ha−1 yr−1) due to lower soil cover and inefficient conservation and cultivation practices. Our results show that adoption of soil conservation measures and improved vegetation cover technologies across the agro-ecosystems reduces soil losses by 37% and increases organic carbon levels by 16%.</p

Exploring decision-making in campaign-based watershed management by using a role-playing game in Boset District, Ethiopia

CONTEXT: The sustainability of the ongoing national Campaign-Based Watershed Management (CBWM) program in Ethiopia is questionable due to poor planning and implementation practices. OBJECTIVE: This study analyzes farmers' decision-making in the CBWM program, and mutual learning and collective decisions among local actors in Boset District - Ethiopia. METHODS: Role-Playing Game (RPG) was the main method of the study. In order to collect pertinent information during the game sessions, observation of farmers' behavior and group discussions were used. Descriptive statistics and qualitative analysis were employed to analyze game outputs. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Results show that farmers prefer to collectively work on private farmlands rather than on communal land. Furthermore, participation of farmers in campaign works was higher under a default-scenario (with control instruments), than under a willingness-scenario (without control instruments). In making decisions on their level of participation in campaign works, farmers followed the decisions of a fellow farmer they considered more knowledgeable. However, the participation of farmers in the maintenance of Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) structures was more or less the same under both scenarios. Both farmers' level of participation in campaign works and maintenance decisions were influenced by their proximity to the CBWM intervention areas (i.e. micro-watersheds) as well as their awareness and motivation. The commitment of local government actors was also crucial to enforce and encourage the farmers to participate in the program. Based on farmers' decisions in the RPG, none of the two scenarios simultaneously enhance the total land area covered with SWC structures and income of farmers. An important benefit of this game was that it stimulated mutual learning and collective decisions on micro-watersheds to be treated and alternative management strategies for the CBWM program. This revealed that there is a need to (1) motivate farmers through capacity building, (2) enhance the commitment of local government actors, and (3) introduce participatory planning to enhance mutual learning and collective decisions for sustainable watershed management. SIGNIFICANCE: While directly applicable to the study area, these recommendations and the RPG (as a toolkit) are essential to enhance the outcomes and sustainability of collective watershed management initiatives in other parts of the world.</p

Assessing farmers'willingness to participate in campaign-based watershed management : Experiences from Boset District, Ethiopia

This study assessed farmers' perceptions of the outcomes of the Campaign-BasedWatershed Management (CBWM) program in Ethiopia, and how this influences their willingness to participate in the program. Key informant interviews, a household survey, and the Google Earth Engine were used to collect and analyze the relevant data. Results show that farmers' perceived outcomes of the CBWM program hardly motivated them to participate in the program. Particularly, farmers were not motivated by the physical effects of the program, because of the limited direct benefits to individual households, and destruction of previously developed micro-watersheds by frequent runoff and human and animal disturbances. Similarly, farmers were not motivated by the economic effects of the program, because of the limitations/absence of benefit-sharing mechanisms and resultant conflicts among farmers. The only motivating outcome of the program concerned its effect on personal capacities, which was particularly appreciated in localities that were vulnerable to erosion. The results of the study suggest the need to (1) better integrate actions at watershed level to come to effective water runoff control, (2) enhance the participation of all local actors to come to more effective area closure initiatives with transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms, and (3) give much more emphasis to capacity building as a cross-cutting component in the program. Hence, in order to enhance the willingness of farmers to genuinely participate in the CBWM, the program should adopt a more participatory and integrated approach.</p

Understanding farmers' investments in sustainable land management in Burundi : A case-study in the provinces of Gitega and Muyinga

Understanding farmers' decision-making to tackle land degradation by means of sustainable land management (SLM) practices is essential for policy makers. The main objective of this study was to identify factors that influence farmers' investments in SLM. A survey was conducted in two provinces of Burundi (Gitega and Muyinga) among 160 households. Methods for data analysis comprised descriptive statistics and multinomial logistic regression. It was derived that both provinces experience severe land degradation, with soil erosion experienced by 88% of the farmers and soil fertility depletion by 92%. Furthermore, findings show that occurrence of soil erosion on the farm (p = 0.025), access to credit (p = 0.022), education level (p = 0.040), engagement of the household head in farming (p < 0.001), and age of the household head (p = 0.050) are significantly and positively associated with higher investments in SLM. Moreover, the findings reveal that the yearly costs per farmer associated to the SLM practices' implementation ranged from US$10.08 for soil and water conservation practices up to US$36.24 for organic fertilizers. Therefore, in order to foster SLM, we recommend policy makers in Burundi to improve access to credit markets in rural areas and enhance efforts to strengthen smallholders' skills, bringing as such more integrated and effective solutions to cope with land degradation problems.</p