Yield Response of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) Cultivated on Creeping Bent Grass (Agrostis sp) Biomass Supplemented with Wheat Bran, Cotton Seed and Waste Paper

Nowadays more attention has been given to mushroom production as new sources of nutrients, medicinal uses; especially for degenerative diseases and environmental sustainability through solid organic waste recycling. The yield of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) grown on the substrate composed from creeping bent grass (Agrostis sp.) waste paper, wheat bran supplemented with cotton seed waste indicated the positive response of this plant. The experimental design constitutes ten treatments (T1-T10) in three replicates from the middle of March 2018 to the end of May 2018. Fastest mycelia colonization was observed in the treatments T10, T9, T8 and T7, 11 days each from inoculation, while the slowest mycelia colonization was observed in treatment T1, T2, T3 and T4, 15 days each from inoculation. Relatively, longest production cycle was observed for treatment T1, T2 and T3: 53 days each, while the shortest production cycle was recorded for treatment T10, T9, T8 and T7: 45days. Highest fresh weight 2050g per 800g dry substrate; highest number of fruits, 85 and largest cap diameter 12cm were  recorded for treatment T10. The lowest total fresh weight 1590g per 800 g dry weight of the substrate was recorded for the treatments T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 respectively.  Lowest number of fruits( 58)was recorded for T1, and smaller cap diameter, 8cm was recorded for T5. The highest number of aborts were observed  for T4 and T9, while the least number with T1. No significant difference was observed for the stipe length and number of bunches of the different treatments. Highest biological efficiency, 250 % was recorded for T10 and the lowest 197 % each for T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5. The study reveals that less proportion of creeping bent grass (Agrostis sp.) biomass together with high proportion of cotton seed waste and equal amount of wheat bran and waste paper as substratum is ideal for growing the oyster mushroom. Keywords/phrases: Creeping bent grass, cotton seed waste, oyster mushroom, waste paper, yiel

Produksjon av biodiesel fra Jatropha curcas L. frø fra forskjellige agro-klimatiske soner i Etiopia: frøbehandling, oljeekstraksjon og optimalisering av biodieselproduksjon ved bruk av heterogene katalysatorer

Energy is basic for development and its demand increases due to population growth, urbanization, and the improvement of living standards in most parts of the world. Nowadays, the energy sector faces dual challenges, the need to meet the ever increasing energy demand and at the same time the concern for environment, particularly, reducing the carbon emissions. Fossil fuels are the main sources of energy and they will continue to dominate the other energy sources although they have negative impacts on the global climate and are non-renewable. The negative effects on the global climate and the uncertainty of the petroleum reserves has increased interests to search for alternative sources of energy which are renewable and have less pollution potential and carbon emission. One of such alternative sources of energy is the biodiesel, which is ecofriendly, renewable, biodegradable and nontoxic. Biodiesel can be produced from vegetable oils, animal fats, waste oils and microalgae. Production of biodiesel from edible vegetable oils resulted in food vs fuel debate, and thus, nowadays production of biodiesel from the oil of non-edible crops such as jatropha seeds is preferred. Jatropha seed oil has been considered as a promising biodiesel feedstock as it is non-edible due to the presence of a toxic compound (the phorbol ester) in it and the oil content of the seed is high. The oil contents of jatropha seeds and seed kernel vary from 20-60% and 40-60%, respectively. The primary objective of the present thesis is to determine the oil contents of different jatropha seed collections and optimize biodiesel production using reusable and low cost heterogenous catalysts. For this purpose, the thesis attempted to identify the suitable conditions for jatropha seed drying for oil extraction in order to determine the oil contents of different jatropha seed collection. Some physco-chemical properties of the oils were also evaluated to determine whether the oils could be used for biodiesel production or not. Moreover, to search for low cost and more sustainable methods of biodiesel production, renewable alcohols and reusable and low cost heterogenous catalysts were used to produce biodiesel at different reaction conditions, and to optimize the reaction process. The present PhD thesis is based on six scientific papers that systematically presented interrelated research activities that included the investigation of different biodiesel feedstocks and various oil extraction methods, techniques of seed drying for oil extraction, extraction of oil from different jatropha seed collections and biodiesel production using renewable alcohols, and reusable and low cost heterogenous catalysts. The research activities in this thesis are interrelated and stepwise activities, and the results obtained from the preceding works were used as the bases and/or inputs for the next activities. Accordingly, the research work was started with the review of the state of art of relevant literature to evaluate the advantages and limitations of using different biodiesel feedstocks and oil extraction methods from different oil sources in general, and from plant seeds in particular (Paper I). From a thorough examination of the literature reports, it was understood that oils from non-edible crops such as jatropha was identified as a promising feedstock for biodiesel as using such oils does not compete with human consumption. Moreover, jatropha seeds have high oil content and the plant has great adaptation potential to various climates. Solvent extraction method was also selected for oil extraction from the seeds due to its efficiency in oil extraction and its simplicity and affordability. The experimental part of the study began with drying a selected jatropha seed collection at storage conditions for oil extraction as the moisture in a seed can affect the oil yield and the quality of the oil. The pretreated crushed seeds and non-pretreated whole seeds were dried at five different temperatures (40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 oC) to identify the temperature and the pretreatment that could reduce the seed moisture to its minimum (Paper II). From this experiment, it was concluded that drying the whole seeds of jatropha at 80 oC for 2880 minutes produced the dried seed with suitable residual moisture (0.34%) for oil extraction. The moisture ratios calculated from the systematically recorded moisture loss from the drying seeds indicated above were adjusted to four semi-theoretical drying mathematical models (Lewis, Henderson and Pabis, Page and Avhad and Marchetti models) to determine the model that best fitted to the experimental drying kinetics of the seeds (Paper III). Among the employed mathematical models, Avhad and Marchetti model showed the best fitting to the experimental data. In Paper IV, after drying the seeds using the previously determined techniques, thirteen different jatropha seed collections were extracted with a Soxhlet extractor using hexane as solvent and cotton or thimble as filter to determine the seed collection that could give the largest percentage of oil. The physco-chemical properties of the sample from mixed oil (a mixture formed from oils from thirteen jatropha seed collections) and oil of Chali seed collection were also determined in order to use these oils for biodiesel production. Moreover, the heat contents of the de-oiled seed residues were determined as using such residues as an energy source can contribute to a reduction of the biodiesel production costs. In the extraction with cotton, Dana seed collection gave the largest oil yield (48.29%) while in the extraction with thimble, the largest oil yield (45.79±0.54%) was obtained from Chali seed collection. The results from the physco-chemical analyses of both oil samples suggested that the oils can be used for biodiesel production. Furthermore, since the average gross calorific value of the de-oiled jatropha seed residues after oil extraction was found to be about 19.64 MJ kg-1, the residues can be used as the source of heat. Two transesterification reactions were performed to produce biodiesel using renewable alcohols and reusable heterogenous catalyst at different reaction conditions to optimize the reaction processes. In the first reaction, the mixed oil (mixture of oils extracted from thirteen different seed collections) was reacted with ethanol using Amberlyst A26 (OH), anion ion exchange resin, at various reaction temperature, ethanol: oil molar ratio and catalyst percent to optimize the oil conversion and biodiesel yield (Paper V). From this study, it was found that the reaction temperature highly affected the reaction process. The maximum oil conversion (38.12%) and ester yield (36.81%) were experimentally obtained at an optimum temperature of 55 oC, alcohol: molar ratio of 35:1 and catalyst amount of 15%. Based on results obtained from the first experiment, it was suggested that upscaling of the oil conversion and biodiesel yield by using an integrated reaction factors, as well as reducing the amount of alcohol employed is needed. In the second transesterification reaction, glycerol enriched non-calcined calcium oxide was employed to catalyze the reaction of the oil of the Chali seed collection (Chali oil) with butanol at different temperatures and butanol: oil molar ratio by employing a constant amount of catalyst (15%wt) and glycerol (15%wt of the catalyst) (Paper VI) to optimize the process. From this study, it was found that the reaction temperature significantly affected the reaction process (p ≤ 0.05). Moreover, the maximum oil conversion of 98.16% was predicted to be obtained at the optimum temperature of 87.35 oC and butanol: oil molar ratio of 9.13:1. The maximum butyl ester yield of 95.79 % was also estimated to be found at the optimum temperature of 90.48 oC and butanol: oil molar ratio of 13.24:1. Furthermore, the butyl ester yield of 95.64% was experimentally obtained at the predicted optimum conditions for the ester yield. From the results of the second reaction, it was suggested that glycerol enriched non-calcined commercial calcium oxide can be used as a good alternative catalyst for biodiesel production using butanol.Energi er grunnleggende for all utvikling og etterspørselen øker på grunn av befolkningsvekst, urbanisering og forbedring av levestandarden i de fleste deler av verden. I dag står energisektoren overfor doble utfordringer, behovet for å imøtekomme det stadig økende energibehovet og samtidig bekymringen for miljøet, spesielt for å redusere karbonutslippene. Fossilt brensel er de viktigste energikildene, og de vil fortsette å dominere over de andre energikildene, selv om de har en negativ innvirkning på det globale klimaet og ikke er fornybare. De negative effektene på det globale klimaet og usikkerhetene omkring petroleumsreservene har økt interessen for å søke etter alternative energikilder som er fornybare og har mindre forurensningspotensiale og karbonutslipp. Biodiesel er en slik alternativ kilde til energi; den er miljøvennlig, fornybar, biologisk nedbrytbar og ikke-giftig. Biodiesel kan produseres fra vegetabilske oljer, animalsk fett, avfallsoljer og mikroalger. Produksjon av biodiesel fra spiselige vegetabilske oljer resulterte i mat vs drivstoffdebatt, og i dag foretrekkes nå produksjon av biodiesel fra olje som kommer fra fra ikke-spiselige vekster, slik som jatrophafrø. Jatropha har blitt sett på som et lovende råstoff for biodiesel, ettersom oljen er ikke spiselig på grunn av tilstedeværelsen av en giftig forbindelse (phorbolesteren), og oljeinnholdet i frøet er høyt. Oljeinnholdet i jatropha frø og frøkjernen varierer fra henholdsvis 20-60% og 40-60%. Hovedmålet med den herværende oppgaven er å bestemme oljeinnholdet i forskjellige jatrophafrø innsamlet i Etiopia og optimalisere biodieselproduksjon ved å bruke gjenbrukbare og rimelige heterogene katalysatorer. Med dette formålet forsøker avhandlingen å identifisere egnede betingelser for tørking av jatrophafrø for å ekstrahere olje, for deretter å bestemme oljeinnholdet i de forskjellige jatrophafrøkildene. Noen fysisk-kjemiske egenskaper av oljene ble også evaluert for å bestemme om oljene kunne brukes til biodieselproduksjon. For å finne de laveste kostnadene og mer bærekraftige metoder for biodieselproduksjon, ble dessuten fornybare alkoholer og gjenbrukbare og rimelige heterogene katalysatorer brukt til å produsere biodiesel ved forskjellige reaksjonsbetingelser, og for å optimalisere reaksjonsprosessen. Den nåværende doktorgradsavhandlingen er basert på seks vitenskapelige artikler som systematisk presenterte sammenhengende forskningsaktiviteter som inkluderte utredning av forskjellige biodiesel råstoff og forskjellige oljeekstraksjonsmetoder, teknikker for frøtørking for oljeekstraksjon, ekstraksjon av olje fra forskjellige jatrophafrøsamlinger og biodieselproduksjon ved bruk av fornybare alkoholer, samt gjenbrukbare og rimelige heterogene katalysatorer. Forskningsaktivitetene i denne avhandlingen henger sammen og trinnvis, og resultatene oppnådd fra de foregående arbeidene ble brukt som baser og / eller innspill til de neste aktivitetene. Følgelig ble forskningsarbeidet startet med en gjennomgang av den aktuelle teknikk for relevant litteratur for å evaluere fordelene og begrensningene ved å bruke forskjellige biodieselråstoff og oljeekstraksjonsmetoder fra forskjellige oljekilder generelt, og fra plantefrø spesielt (Artikkel I). Fra den detaljerte gjennomgangen av litteraturen ble det antydet at oljer fra ikke-spiselige avlinger som jatropha er identifisert som et lovende råstoff for biodiesel ettersom bruk av slik olje ikke konkurrerer med matproduksjon direkte. Dessuten har jatrophafrø høyere oljeinnhold, og planten har stort tilpasningspotensial til forskjellige klima. Oppløsningsmiddelekstraksjonsmetode ble også valgt for oljeekstraksjon fra frøene på grunn av dens effektivitet i oljeekstraksjon og dens enkelhet og rimelig kostnad. Den eksperimentelle delen av studien ble startet med tørking av en valgt jatrophafrøsamling etter lagring. Lagringstilstand før oljeekstraksjon kan ha betydning for oljeutbyttet og kvaliteten på oljen, siden fuktigheten i et frø påvirker dette. De forbehandlede knuste frøene og ikke-forbehandlede hele frøene ble tørket ved fem forskjellige temperaturer (40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 oC) for å identifisere temperaturen og forbehandlingen som kunne redusere frøfuktigheten til sitt minimum (Artikkel II). Fra dette eksperimentet ble det konkludert med at tørking av hele frøene av jatropha ved 80 oC i 2880 minutter ga det tørkede frøet med passende restfuktighet (0,34%) for oljeekstraksjon. Fuktighetsforholdene beregnet ut fra det systematisk registrerte fuktighetstapet fra tørkefrøene som er angitt ovenfor, ble justert til fire semi-teoretiske tørkende matematiske modeller (Lewis, Henderson og Pabis, Page og Avhad og Marchettis modeller) for å bestemme hvilken modell som passet best til forsøket tørkingskinetikk av frøene (Artikkel III). Av de anvendte matematiske modellene viste Avhad og Marchetti-modellen seg best tilpasset til eksperimentelle data. I Artikkel IV ble tørrinnsamling av jatrophafrøekstrakt med Soxhlet-ekstraktor ved bruk av de tidligere optimale teknikker, og ved å anvende heksan som løsningsmiddel, og bomull eller fingerbøl som filter, for å finne den frøsamlingen som kunne gi den største prosentvise oljen. De fysisk-kjemiske egenskapene til prøven fra blandet olje (en blanding dannet av oljer fra tretten jatrophafrøsamlinger) og olje fra Chali-frøsamlingen ble også analysert for å bruke disse oljene til biodieselproduksjon. Videre ble varmeinnholdet i frørestene etter oljeutvinning bestemt fordi bruk av slike rester som energikilde kan bidra til med å redusere de totale investeringskostnadene for biodieselproduksjon. I ekstraksjonen med bomull ga Dana-frøsamlingen det største oljeutbyttet (48,29%), mens i ekstraksjonen med fingerbøl ble den største mengden olje (45,79 ± 0,54%) oppnådd fra Chali-frøsamlingen. Resultatene fra den fysisk-kjemiske analysen av begge oljeprøvene antydet at oljene kan brukes til biodieselproduksjon. Siden de gjennomsnittlige brutto brennverdiene av jatrophafrørestene etter oljeekstraksjon var ca. 19,64 MJ kg-1, kan restene brukes som varmekilde. To transesterifiseringsreaksjoner ble utført for å produsere biodiesel ved bruk av fornybare alkoholer og gjenbrukbar heterogen katalysator ved forskjellige reaksjonsbetingelser for å optimalisere reaksjonsprosessene. I den første reaksjonen ble den blandede oljen (blanding av oljer ekstrahert fra tretten forskjellige frøsamlinger) omsatt med etanol ved bruk av Amberlyst A26 (OH), anionionbytterharpiks, ved forskjellige reaksjonstemperaturer, etanol: olje-molforhold og katalysatorprosent for å optimalisere oljeomdannelse og biodieselutbytte (Artikkel V). Fra denne studien ble det funnet at reaksjonstemperaturen påvirket reaksjonsprosessen sterkt. Maksimal oljeomdannelse (38.12%) og esterutbytte (36.81%) ble eksperimentelt oppnådd ved en optimal temperatur på 55 oC, alkohol: molforhold på 35:1 og katalysatormengde på 15%. Basert på resultater oppnådd fra det første eksperimentet, ble det antydet at oppskalering av oljekonvertering og biodieselutbytte ved bruk av integrerte reaksjonsfaktorer, samt reduksjon av anvendt alkoholmengde er nødvendig. I den andre omesterifiseringsreaksjonen ble glyserolanriket ikke-kalsinert kalsiumoksyd anvendt for å katalysere reaksjonen fra oljen fra Chali frøsamlingen (Chali olje) med butanol ved forskjellige temperaturer og butanol: olje (i et molært forhold) ved å bruke en konstant mengde katalysator (15% vekt) og glyserol (15 vekt% av katalysatoren) (Artikkel VI) for å optimalisere prosessen. Av denne studien fant vi at reaksjonsprosessen ble betydelig påvirket av reaksjonstemperaturen (p ≤ 0,05). Videre ble den maksimale oljekonvertering på 98,16% forventet å være oppnådd ved en optimale temperatur på 87,35 oC og et butanol: olje-molforhold på 9,13:1. Det maksimale butylesterutbytte på 95,79% ble også beregnet til å bli oppnådd ved en optimal temperatur på 90,48 oC og butanol: olje-molforhold på 13,24:1. Vi viste eksperimentelt et butylesterutbyttet på 95,64% ved de forutsagte optimale betingelsene for esterutbyttet. Av resultatene fra den andre reaksjonen er det mulig at glyserolanriket ikke-kalsinert kommersielt kalsiumoksyd kan brukes som et god alternativ katalysator for biodieselproduksjon ved bruk av butanol.EnPe/Norad project entitled “Research and Capacity Building in Clean and Renewable Bioenergy in Ethiopia

Growth and Yield of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) on Substrate Composed of Maize (Zea mays L.) Stem and Cotton (Gossypium spp) Seed Waste

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) is known to utilize a wide range of agricultural by -products and organic wastes from agro-processing industries. This study was carried out in order to evaluate the usability of maize stem along with  different proportion of cotton seed waste for the growth, yield and yield related parameters of oyster mushroom. From all the different treatments tested, those composed the maize stem: cotton seed waste in the ratio of (60:40 and30:70) showed fastest mycelial run, 3.6 and 7.2 cm respectively, on 7th and 14th days of incubation. Maize stem: cotton seed waste (60:40 and 80:20) took shortest time from incubation to 1st flush 30 days; while maize stem: cotton seed waste (90:10 and 80:20) showed shortest pinning to maturation throughout the flushes. Maize stem: cotton seed waste (30:70) observed to have higher number of aborts 105, higher number of fruiting bodies 125 and maize stem: cotton seed waste (30:70) showed larger pilus diameter 9.2cm, higher fresh weight of matures 795g and highest biological efficiency 159%. Although the total yields of the mushroom biomass, as well as the biological efficiency were greatly affected by the different substrate compositions, all combination of the substrate gave more than 100% biological efficiency which makes maize stem together with cotton seed waste a good option for mass production of oyster mushroom which can produce good quality mushroom fruit bodies. Keywords: Cotton seed waste, growth, maize stem, oyster mushroom, yiel

Effect of the Near Surface Depletion Layer on Photo-Response of Direct Band Gap Semiconductor

In this study, the effects of the photo-responses of the near surface depletion layer and the deep bulk of gallium antimonide (GaSb) are investigated under different doping levels, injection level and illumination energies. First, the absorption rate of photons is described as a function of illumination energies at different locations inside the sample and as a function of the depth below the illuminated surface for photons with different energies. Then, the doping level dependence of the low injection level radiative, Auger and effective excess carrier lifetimes just under the surface and in the deep bulk are investigated by considering the variation of energy bending at the surface. The variation of the low injection level excess carrier lifetimes with the depth below the illuminated surface for samples with different doping levels is also described. This is followed by the description of the combined effects of doping and illumination energy on the photo-response of the entire bulk at slightly low injection level. Finally, the excess carrier injection level dependence of excess carrier lifetimes under the illuminated surface and deep bulk is also described for samples with different doping levels. Since photon absorption rate is directly related to the free carriers generation rate, the description of the photon absorption rate as functions of illumination energies and the depth below the illuminated surface is found to be the important and factors in the investigation in the photo-response of semiconductors along with the doping and the injection levels.  The analysis of the results also shows that, the under surface region is insensitive to the doping level and that of the deep bulk is highly affected by the doping level. The injection level dependence of the photo-response of the under surface region is similar for all samples with different doping. The energy of illumination each photon mainly suppresses the photo-responses of the points situated closer to the penetration depths of each photon below the illuminated surface of the sample. Keywords: photo-response, direct band gap semiconductor, gallium antimonide GaSb DOI: 10.7176/APTA/75-03

Exploring Gumaa as an indispensable psycho-social method of conflict resolution and justice administration

Oromo as a society, like many African societies, is rich in indigenous institutions of conflict resolution and justice administration. Gumaa is one of the multitude of Oromo indigenous institutions that has exclusively been used to settle blood feuds of various types. In spite of its wider utilisation and its multi-disciplinary nature, psycho-social analysis of gumaa is lacking in literature. With an aim of helping to fill this gap and of maximising gumaa’s potential contributions to conflict resolution, justice administration and peacebuilding, this article offers a psycho-social perspective on gumaa. Having analysed combined data from multiple sources regarding gumaa within psychological and social frameworks, the author identifies and highlights six interrelated theses (themes) about the key roles gumaa plays in conflict resolution, justice administration and peacebuilding (in cases of homicide). Finally, based on the themes identified and highlighted and other pertinent elaborations and case material, the author theorises gumaa as a vital psycho-social method of confl ict resolution, justice administration and peacebuilding and calls for its offi cial recognition and revitalisation as per article 78(5) of the Constitution of Ethiopia.African Journal on Conflict Resolution, Volume 13, Number 1, 201

Does health sector aid matter? Evidence from time-series data analysis in Ethiopia

Aims: Development assistance for health is an important part of financing health care in developing countries. In spite of the increasing volumes in absolute terms in development assistance for health, there are controversies on their effect on health outcomes. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the effect of development assistance for health on health status in Ethiopia. Methods: Using dynamic time series analytic approach for the period 1978-2013, this paper examines whether development assistance for health has contributed for health status change in Ethiopia. While life expectancy at birth was used as a measure of health status, vector error correction model was used for the analysis. Results: Development assistance for health expenditure (lagged one and two years) had a significant positive effect on life expectancy at birth in Ethiopia. Other things being equal, a 1% increase in per capita development assistance for health leads to 0.026 years improvement in life expectancy at birth (P<0.001) in the immediate year following the period of assistance, and 0.008 years (P=0.025) in the immediate two years following the provision of assistance. Conclusion: This study indicates that, seemingly, development assistance for health has significant favourable effect in improving health status in Ethiopia. The policy implication of this finding is development assistance for the health should continue as an interim means to an end. &nbsp

Assessment of Knowledge and Practice Towards Prevention of Anemia Among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Care at Government Hospitals in West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia

Back ground: Anemia affects 1.62 billion people (24.8%), among which 56 million are pregnant women. It is a major public health problem particularly among poorer segments of the population in developing countries where 95% of the world anemic pregnant women are residing. Anemia is one of the most commonly encountered medical disorders during pregnancy. According to WHO estimates, up to 56% of all women living in developing countries are anemic. Objective: The objective of the study was to assess the knowledge and practice regarding Prevention of anemia among pregnant mothers attending ANC in Governmental hospitals at west shoa zone, Ethiopia.Method: Hospital based cross sectional study was employed in three public hospitals found in West Shewa Zone to find out the level of knowledge and practice regarding prevention of anemia dung pregnancy among women attending ANC. A total of 286 pregnant mothers were interviewed by using pretested structured questionnaire from three hospitals. Simple random sampling procedure was carried out to attain the required sample size. Data was entered and processed in to the computer using SPSS version 20. Results: A total of 286 pregnant women were participated on the study. Among them only 57.3% and 50% were found to have good knowledge and poor practice respectively regarding prevention of anemia during pregnancy. Crude and adjusted odds ratio done revealed that educational status, living in urban, having nuclear family type, previous history of anemia and good practice were significantly associated with knowledge, while educational status and having good knowledge also found to be significantly associated with prevention of anemia during pregnancy.Conclusions: Based on study findings, half of the study participants attending ANC at West Shoa Zone Governmental Hospitals have Poor Knowledge and poor skills regarding prevention of anemia during pregnancy. Multiple factors such as education, residency, having nuclear type of family and previous anemia history found to affect knowledge and practice regarding prevention of anemia during pregnancy significantly. Therefore, Policy makers would be better consider those factors contributed in prevention of anemia during pregnancy. Keywords: Knowledge, Practice, Prevention, Anemia, Pregnant Women, Antenatal Care

Role of small-scale trees plantation and farmers’ attitude and skill toward propagation of indigenous and exotic trees: The case of Sidama, Ethiopia

The tree land cover in Ethiopia is declining due to deforestation, agricultural land expansion, overgrazing, firewood use and construction. Farm tree plantation has a potential to improve tree cover and the country's vision towards  reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emission by 2030. This study was conducted in Sidama of Ethiopia to assess the role of small-scale tree  plantations, and the attitudes and skills of farmers in propagating and conserving indigenous trees as compared to exotic ones, and to identify  major impediments for exotic and indigenous tree plantation. By using stratified random sampling, 149 household heads were selected and  interviewed, and the tree plantation practices of 46 randomly selected farmers were observed. Advice and support given to farmers concerning tree  plantation and nursery care were collected from 16 Woreda Rural Development Experts. During the study a total of 46 tree species were identified,  and 92% of the trees on the farmland were exotic. The percentage composition of the five most dominant tree species were Eucalyptus spp. (79.6%),  Cupressus spp (8.5%), Cordia africana (4.8%), Grevillea robusta (3.3%), and Millettia ferruginea (1.8%). The trees provide several direct and  indirect socioeconomic and ecological importance (construction, fuel, income, medicinal value, fencing, asset for present and next generation,  fodder for livestock, garden shade, aesthetic, recreation, spiritual value, improve soil fertility and environmental impact remediation). The majority  of farmers prefer exotic trees due to their fast growth, ease of nursery preparation and fast establishment, and higher income generation in shorter  period. Though farmers like to plant indigenous trees for their ecological services such as improving soil fertility, producing durable  household utensils, shading and other ecological values; land shortage and lack of knowledge on plant biology, nursery preparation and  propagation method constrained its plantation. Therefore, introduction of appropriate technologies to the existing farming system is required for  sustainable indigenous tree plantation in the study area

Genetic diversity in Ethiopian field pea (Pisum sativum L.) germplasm collections as revealed by SSR markers

Field pea is an ancient legume crop grown mainly for food in Ethiopia. Even though, there are over one thousand five hundred field pea collections, only a few studies has been conducted on the magnitude and pattern of genetic diversity at molecular level particularly with SSR markers. In this study, genetic diversity of 142 contrasting Ethiopian field pea germplasm were investigated using SSR markers. Euclidean Distance Matrix clustered the collections into seven distinct groups. There were 20 collections in Cluster I, 11 in Cluster II, 5 in Cluster III, 41 in Cluster IV, 17 in Cluster V, 18 in Cluster VI and 30 in Cluster VII. The first, second and third principal components accounted for variation of 76.85%, 6.89% and 6.06%, respectively. There was no definite relationship between pattern of molecular diversity and collection zones, enlightening high levels of intra and inter-genetic diversity of the germplasm. The SSRs used in this study showed relatively higher polymorphic information content (PIC), ranging from 0.33 to 0.95. This indicates that markers used in this study would be useful for genetic diversity analysis of pea. The study exposed that there is wealth of genetic diversity in the gene pool to exploit in field pea breeding and conservation endeavors