Voluntary Agreements in Environmental Protection - Experiences in Germany and Future Perspectives

A trend towards softer regulation, especially in the form of negotiated environmental agreements, is observable in national and international environmental policies. Such agreements are controversial, because there are fears that government will relinquish its responsibility for environmental protection. This paper analyses recent experiences with voluntary agreements in Germany. Topical German examples that have prompted public debates include the takeback agreement for cars, the voluntary agreement made by a number of industries on a C02 reduction by the year 2005 and the voluntary agreement made by the automobile industry on the development of energy-efficient cars. Proponents of voluntary agreements argue that this instrument provides incentives to the business sector for the development of efficient, innovative and environmentally-friendly solutions. Analysing the examples mentioned above, we conclude that it is hard to detect solutions derserving such attributes. These agreements are unlikely to produce results that go beyond what industry would have done in any case and they avoid using economic incentives. The agreements are' non-binding and unenforceable, with the negotiating process leading to a watering down of the environmental goals government had originally aimed at. A preference for negotiated solutions on principle, as currently espoused by the Federal Government in Germany, seems to be counterproductive. If the government clearly signals its willingness to refrain from using regulatory or economic instruments in favour of industry agreements, it weakens its negotiating position. The government also limits its options should the implementation of the agreement prove unsatisfactory. Government needs to be in control in order to leave its choice of policy instruments open and to be flexible. In a last step, we derive some general conclusions concerning reasonable strategies and applications of voluntary agreements within the European Union. --negotiated agreements,climate protection,circular economy,economic instruments of environmental policy

a pilot study

Background Due to its high allergenic potential Ambrosia artemisiifolia has become a health threat in many European countries during the last few decades. Hence, several cities and communities initiated ragweed eradication campaigns. In Berlin, Germany, so-called Ambrosia scouts are being assigned the task of finding and eliminating this weed. We sought to evaluate the potential risk of sensitization and allergy in these individuals. Findings In order to assess the risk of sensitization and allergy, we followed-up 20 Ambrosia scouts by skin-prick test with inhalant allergens, immunoserological and pulmonary function tests. Additionally, medical conditions were evaluated by a questionnaire especially designed for this study. Despite close contact to ragweed over a median duration of 13.8 months, none of the participants became sensitized or allergic to ragweed. One individual developed a clinical non- relevant sensitization towards the taxiconomically-related plant mugwort. A decline in relative FEV1 was most probably due to heavy smoking. Conclusions Our surprising findings suggest that intensive contact and exposure to high ragweed pollen concentrations do not necessarily result in sensitization and/or allergy, meaning that the allergenic potential of this weed might be lower than hitherto expected. However, it is also conceivable that continuous exposure to high allergen levels induced tolerance in the ragweed workers. Due to the relatively small number of subjects studied, our results might be biased and therefore investigations on larger study groups are needed

Effect of Pollen-Specific Sublingual Immunotherapy on Oral Allergy Syndrome

BACKGROUND: Oral allergy syndrome (OAS) triggered by fruit and vegetables often occurs in patients with pollen-induced rhinoconjunctivitis because of cross-reactive epitopes in pollen and associated foods. This open observational study examined the effect of pollen-specific sublingual immunotherapy ([SLIT] B. U. Pangramin or SLITone involving birch/alder/hazel, grasses/rye, and/or mugwort) on OAS triggered by several foods in patients treated in standard practice. Very few studies have examined SLIT use in this situation. METHODS: Patients (n = 102) had pollen-induced rhinoconjunctivitis and OAS and were followed for up to 12 months. Baseline OAS (triggers, symptoms, and symptom severity) was assessed by questionnaire and patient history. Change in OAS was assessed using oral challenge test with 1 or 2 dominant food triggers (and compared with the sum score calculated from the OAS questionnaire at baseline) and clinician ratings of change. Pollen-induced rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms and medication use were also measured. RESULTS: In the oral challenge test, 77.0% of patients were considered responders (decrease in sum score of ≥ 50%; no difference in patients receiving B. U. Pangramin or SLITone). At baseline, investigators rated OAS severity as at least moderate in 94.9% of patients compared with 36.9% after 12 months of treatment. After 12 months, OAS was rated as much or very much improved in 72.9% of patients. Sublingual immunotherapy significantly reduced rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms and medication use. Only 10% of patients experienced adverse drug reactions. CONCLUSION: This study supplements the sparse literature on this topic and suggests that pollen-specific SLIT can reduce OAS triggered by pollen-associated foods in patients with pollen-induced rhinoconjunctivitis

Macht Ambrosia krank?

Das Eindringen und die Verbreitung von Ambrosia in Deutschland sind aus ärztlicher Sicht verhängnisvoll und gefährlich. Die Pollen der Pflanze lösen eine allergische Rhinitis und Konjunktivitis aus, die häufig zu einer Allergie gegen Nahrungsmittel wie Sellerie und Gewürze führt (Orales Allergie-Syndrom). Nicht selten entwickelt sich neben dem Ambrosia-Heuschnupfen ein allergisches Asthma, das anfangs nur während der Ambrosia-Pollensaison im September/Oktober, dann aber ganzjährig auftritt. Der direkte Kontakt mit der Pflanze kann zu einem Kontaktekzem führen. Das Vermeiden der Ausbreitung und Zurückdrängen der Pflanze ist aus medizinischer Sicht wichtig und notwendig.Stichwörter: Allergie, Ambrosie, Asthma, BeifußDoes ragweed cause disease?From a medical perspective, introduction and spread of ragweed in Germany are a disaster. The pollen of the species trigger allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis that often lead to allergies against food items like celery or spices. In some cases this can lead to allergic asthma that at first appears during the ragweed pollen season in September and October, but can later prevail during the whole year. In addition, touching the plant can result in contact dermatitis. From a medical point of view, halting the spread of ragweed is important and necessary.  Keywords: Allergy, asthma, mugwort, ragwee

Development and function of the genital organs in the parthenogenetic oribatid mite Archegozetes longisetosus Aoki 1965

Archegozetes longisetosus Aoki 1965 is a parthenogenetic oribatid mite, that has a pantropical-disjunct distribution. It is a member of the family of Trhypochthoniidae. Its ease of rearing, rapid succession of generations and high fecundity fulfill central requirements of a suitable model organism. Roy A. Norton in 1993 founded a laboratory strain from a single puertorican female, Archegozetes longisetosus ran, which is since kept in laboratories worldwide. This laboratory strain lead to A. longisetosus being the most thoroughly studied oribatid mite. The species is of special interest in studies on evolutionary biology, as it is a member of a cluster of obligatory parthenogenetic species, for which molecular studies have indicated a very old age of probably more than a hundred million years. Detailed insight in the reproduction of A. longisetosus therefore does not only broaden our knowledge of a model organism, but may also contribute to a better understanding of the ancillary conditions of uni- vs. bisexual propagation, as well as the differential likelihood of long term stability in different forms of unisexual propagation. One step on the way towards this goal, and a necessary condition for future studies, is the acquisition of anatomical data regarding structure, function and development of organs and tissues. This cognitive interest lay at the starting point of the study at hand. With the aid of high-resolution synchrotron X-ray micro computer tomographies (SR-μCT), three-dimensional models of the genital organs and their precursors were obtained from all freeliving instars (larva to adult). As several models per instar at intervals of several days were obtained, important insight in developmental processes was gained. Already in the larva, germinative and somatic portions of the genital anlage can be distinguished. Further development proceeds continously, and largely independent from cuticular moulting. Precursors of the oviducts start to develop in the protonymphal stage, whereas proliferation of the germcells takes place during the deutonymphal stage. Ectodermal portions of the genital systems start development in the tritonymphal stage. The oviducts apparently do not form as evaginations of a coelomic sac containing germline cells, but either as lateral folds of the coelomic cavity or as lateral evaginations, which retrogradally form secondary contact sites to the germinative portion. Further investigations are needed to establish the mode of oviduct formation unequivocally. Three-dimensional models also facilitated the planning of semi- and ultrathin serial sectionings, which yielded histological and functional information. Observations made using electron- and lightmicroscopy included the onset of meiosis I in the tritonymphal stage, uptake of yolk precursors from the fat body into the oocyte via microvilli and coated pits, accumulation of egg shell material simultaneous to yolk accumulation, and the solidification of the egg shell upon passing into the oviduct. These observations justified a nomenclature of the genital system and the classification of the ovary as panoistic. Additionally, the oviducts could be described as a sheltered space for embryonal development. In summary, the results indicate that the loss of fertilization in the reproduction of A. longisetosus permits both anatomical and temporal compaction of the related processes, enabling relatively high average reproductive rate, even in the face of short-term unstable environmental conditions. The selection of methods permitted to demonstrate the mechanism of thelytoky by terminal fusion automixis with inverted (postreductional) meiosis in a functional context, and to present A. longisetosus as a promising model system also for questions beyond the borders of the taxon chelicerata.Archegozetes longisetosus Aoki 1965 ist eine parthenogenetische Hornmilbe mit pantropisch-disjunkter Verbreitung aus der Familie der Trhypochthoniidae. Durch ihre einfache Haltung, schnelle Generationenfolge und hohe Fruchtbarkeit erfüllt sie wesentliche Merkmale eines geeigneten Modellorganismus. 1993 wurde von Roy A. Norton aus einem einzelnen puertoricanischen Weibchen ein Laborstamm etabliert, A. longisetosus ran, der inzwischen weltweit in Laboren vertreten ist, was mit dazu führte, dass A. longisetosus mittlerweile die insgesamt am besten untersuchte Hornmilbe darstellt. Von besonderem Interesse ist die Art für evolutionsbiologische Studien, Da sie zu einem Schwarm obligat parthenogenetischer Linien gehört, für die molekulare Studien ein sehr hohes Alter von evtl. über hundert Millionen Jahren nahelegen. Ein genaues Verständnis der Fortpflanzungsvorgänge von A. longisetosus dient also nicht nur der Erweiterung unserer allgemeinen Kenntnis eines Modellorganismus, sondern darüber hinaus dem besseren Verständnis der Randbedingungen ein- und zweigeschlechtlicher Fortpflanzung, sowie der unterschiedlich langen Überlebenswahrscheinlichkeit der verschiedenen Formen eingeschlechtlicher Fortpflanzung. Ein Schritt auf dem Weg zu diesem Verständnis, und notwendige Bedingung für weiterführende Studien, ist der Aufbau einer anatomischen Datengrundlage zu Aufbau, Funktion und Entwicklung der an der Fortpflanzung beteiligten Organe und Gewebe. Dieses Erkenntnisinteresse lag der vorliegenden Arbeit zugrunde. Anhand hochauflösender Synchrotron- Röntgen- Mikro- Computer- Tomographien (SR-μCT) wurden dreidimensionale Modelle der Genitalorgane und ihrer Anlagen in allen freilebenden Stadien von der Larve bis zum Adultus erstellt. Da pro Entwicklungsstadium mehrere Modelle im Abstand weniger Tage erstellt werden konnten, konnten so wichtige Erkenntnisse über die Entwicklung der Genitalorgane gewonnen werden. So zeigte sich, dass schon in Larvenstadien ein somatischer und ein germinativer Anteil der Genitalanlage unterschieden werden kann. Die weitere Entwicklung dieser Anlage verläuft kontinuierlich, und weitgehend unabhängig von den Häutungen der Körperhülle. Vorläufer der Ovidukte beginnen sich ab der Protonymphe zu entwickeln, während die Vermehrung der Eizellen in der Deutonymphe stattfindet. Ab der Tritonymphe bilden sich auch die ektodermalen Anteile des Genitalsystems aus. Die Ovidukte bilden sich dabei wohl nicht als Evaginationen eines die Eizellen enthaltenden Coelomsackes, sondern entweder als randliche Abfaltungen des Genitalcoeloms, oder als laterale Evaginationen, die retrograd sekundären Kontakt zum germinativen Teil aufnehmen, eine Beobachtung, die noch weiterer Klärung bedarf. Sehr erleichtert durch die Modellserie wurde auch die Planung von Semi- und Ultradünnschnittserien ausgewählter Strukturen, die histologische und funktionelle Einsichten lieferten. So konnte das Einsetzen der Meiose in der Tritonymphe, die Aufnahme von Dottervorstufen aus dem Fettkörper in die Eizelle durch Mikrovilli und ‘coated pitsˊ, die Ablagerung von Eihüllenmaterial und dessen Verfestigung beim Übergang ins Ovidukt beobachtet werden. Durch diese Erkenntnisse konnte eine Nomenklatur des Genitalsystems begründet werden, das Ovar als funktionell panoistisch klassifiziert und die Ovidukte als geschützter Raum der Embryonalentwicklung beschrieben. Insgesamt ergeben sich Hinweise darauf, dass der Reproduktionsmodus durch Wegfall der Befruchtung die anatomische Verdichtung und Verschränkung der Prozesse erlaubt, was eine konstant hohe Reproduktionsrate auch unter kurzfristig wechselnden Lebensbedingungen ermöglicht. Mit der vorgestellten Methodenauswahl konnte der Reproduktionsmodus der Thelytokie mit terminaler Fusion und invertierter (postreduktionaler) Meiose im funktionalen Zusammenhang dargestellt, und A. longisetosus als aussichtsreiches Modellsystem für auch über den Bereich der Cheliceraten hinausweisenden Fragestellungen vorgestellt werden