Climate Finance: Fears and Hopes for Developing Countries

This article looks at the current climate finance architecture and its impact on developing countries climate change responses. The primary aim is to capture the contradictions that exist in the climate finance architecture particularly between those recommended by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and those advanced by developed countries otherwise known as non-UNFCCC climate financing mechanisms. The overall observation is that once non-UNFCCC climate financing mechanisms emerged and the more they were justified using the UNFCCC, the global response to the climate change problem was fatally wounded through a procedural derailment of UNFCCC objectives. This article calls for a review of non-UNFCCC with the aim of divesting them of the profit factor which in this case is the problematic. Keywords: Climate, Finance, Mechanisms, Governance, Privatization, Stalemate

Sequence of a Coxiella endosymbiont of the tick Amblyomma nuttalli suggests a pattern of convergent genome reduction in the Coxiella genus.

Ticks require bacterial symbionts for the provision of necessary compounds that are absent in their hematophagous diet. Such symbionts are frequently vertically transmitted and, most commonly, belong to the Coxiella genus, which also includes the human pathogen Coxiella burnetii. This genus can be divided in four main clades, presenting partial but incomplete co-cladogenesis with the tick hosts. Here we report the genome sequence of a novel Coxiella, endosymbiont of the African tick Amblyomma nuttalli, and the ensuing comparative analyses. Its size (~1 Mb) is intermediate between symbionts of Rhipicephalus species and other Amblyomma species. Phylogenetic analyses show that the novel sequence is the first genome of the B clade, the only one for which no genomes were previously available. Accordingly, it allows to draw an enhanced scenario of the evolution of the genus, one of parallel genome reduction of different endosymbiont lineages, which are now at different stages of reduction from a more versatile ancestor. Gene content comparison allows to infer that the ancestor could be reminiscent of Coxiella burnetii. Interestingly, the convergent loss of mismatch repair could have been a major driver of such reductive evolution. Predicted metabolic profiles are rather homogenous among Coxiella endosymbionts, in particular vitamin biosynthesis, consistently with a host-supportive role. Concurrently, similarities among Coxiella endosymbionts according to host genus and despite phylogenetic unrelatedness hint at possible host-dependent effects

Cost-efficient evaluation of ambulance services for community critical care transport needs in Machakos County, Kenya

Background: Machakos County is one of the 47 counties in Kenya. In the current study performance of ambulance services were measured using indicators such as response time, on-scene time, clients’ satisfaction and cost-efficiency (technical).Objectives: To determine the cost-efficient ambulance services appropriate for community critical care transport needs in Machakos County.Design: Descriptive cross sectional study.Setting: Machakos County (Emergencies Services Department)Subjects: Publically financed ambulancesResults: Machakos has seventy Basic Life Support (BLS) ambulances distributed among the 69 administrative locations (wards). A total of 12,674 victims were transported to different tares of hospital and referrals between March 2014 to May 2015. Victims requiring emergency obstetric care (EMOC) accounted for 24.7% of victims transported, road traffic accidents victims10.3% and the least were rape victims at 0.03%. The annual operational cost was Kshs. 70,328,627 (USD 717,639.05). Expenditure profiles indicated that staff wages accounted for 49% of total operational cost,overheads costs accounted for 33.5%, while office rent accounted for 1.36%. The mean unit cost per kilometer was Kshs. 30.9 (USD 0.32) and cost per victim transported by an ambulance was Kshs. 6,504 (USD 66.37). Key demand factors were social cultural and health seeking behaviours of residents. The supply barriers were transport costs, operational costs and in-efficient signage on roads for direction. The mean cost-efficiency (technical) of Machakos ambulance transport services was 90.6% (C.I 82.7% - 98.2%).Conclusion: Machakos County Government ambulance services was technically efficient operating

IL-4 alpha chain receptor (IL-4Rα) polymorphisms in allergic bronchopulmonary sspergillosis

BACKGROUND: Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis occurs in 7–10% of cystic fibrosis (CF) and 1–2% of asthmatic patients. HLA-DR restriction and increased sensitivity to IL-4 stimulation have been proposed as risk factors in these populations. OBJECTIVE: We examined for the presence of IL-4 receptor alpha chain (IL-4Rα) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in ABPA and whether these accounted for increased sensitivity to IL-4 stimulation. METHODS: One extracellular (ile75val) and four cytoplasmic IL-4Rα SNPs were analyzed in 40 CF and 22 asthmatic patients and in 56 non-ABPA CF and asthmatic patients. Sensitivity to IL-4 stimulation was measured by induction of CD23 expression on B cells. RESULTS: IL-4Rα SNPs were observed in 95% of ABPA patients. The predominant IL-4Rα SNP was the extracellular IL-4Rα SNP, ile75val, observed in 80% of ABPA patients. CONCLUSION: The presence of IL-4Rα SNPs, principally ile75val, appears to be a genetic risk for the development of ABPA

Determination of Caffeine Content in Non-Alcoholic Beverages and Energy Drinks Using Hplc-Uv Method.

The purpose of this study was to determine the amount of caffeine in non-alcoholic energy drinks and prepared teas using reverse phase HPLC. Caffeine was extracted from 19 different types of non-alcoholic beverages and prepared teas sampled from supermarkets in Nairobi Central Business District, Kenya. These were analyzed alongside a caffeine standard of 99 % purity by use of HPLC-UV detector at the wavelength of 272nm, Supelco HS C18 column 25 cm x 4.6 cm x 5 μm, oven temperature of 40 oC, mobile phase 80:20 (v/v) of methanol: water and mobile phase flow rate of 1.5mL/min. For quantitation purposes, serial dilution of the caffeine standard gave correlation coefficient (r) of 0.9993 and the retention time of 2.11±0.03 minute. Percentage recovery of caffeine from the column ranged from 89.78 to 105.59%. Limits of detection and quantitation were found to be 0.279 and 0.931 μg/mL respectively. It was found that Burn®, XL energy drink® and Red Bull® had the highest amount of caffeine. It was however noted that though most of the non-alcoholic beverages had high caffeine content they had no label claim. Key Words: Reverse Phase High Performance Liquid chromatography (HPLC), Ultra violet visible (UV/VIS), caffeine, non-alcoholic beverage

Antibiotic susceptibility of Enteric pathogens from the Maasai community, Narok and Kajiado Districts, Kenya

The emergence of resistance to antimicrobial agents in bacterial pathogens is a worldwide problem that has been associated with inappropriate use in human and veterinary medicine. Between August 2004 and July 2005 stool samples from 380 patients were cultured for enteric pathogens and characterized by Polymerase Chain Reaction for the presence of virulence properties. Patients were from Narok and Kajiado Districts of Kenya, mainly populated by the Maasai community majority of who practice traditional medicine. 218 patients were from Narok District Hospital and 62 from Entosopia Clinic in Kajiado. A total of 107 E. coli and 35 Shigella isolates were tested. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done using the E-test strips containing Tetracycline, Gentamicin, Chloramphenicol, Fosfomycin, Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid, Trimethoprim/Sulphamethoxazole, Ticarcillin/ Clavulanic acid and Ciprofloxacin. The resistance frequencies did not differ significantly between other E. coliand Shiga toxigenic E. coli, respectively; Gentamicin (3% vs. 3%), Chloramphenicol, (24% vs. 23%) and ampicillin (25% vs. 23%), Tetracycline (63% vs. 68%), Fosfomycin (44% vs. 54%) and Trimethoprim/Sulphamethoxazole (84% vs. 84%). Overall antibiotic resistance levels were at much lower levels than those reported from the rest of Kenya, possibly due to the lower levels of exposure and usage of antimicrobials among the Maasai community

Polymorphic phase transformations of 3-chloro-trans-cinnamic acid and its solid solution with 3-bromo-trans-cinnamic acid

We have investigated the polymorphic phase transformations above ambient temperature for 3-chloro-trans-cinnamic acid (3-ClCA, C9H7ClO2) and a solid solution of 3-ClCA and 3-bromo-trans-cinnamic acid (3-BrCA, C9H7BrO2). At 413 K, the γ polymorph of 3-ClCA transforms to the β polymorph. Inter­estingly, the structure of the β polymorph of 3-ClCA obtained in this transformation is different from the structure of the β polymorph of 3-BrCA obtained in the corresponding polymorphic transformation from the γ polymorph of 3-BrCA, even though the γ polymorphs of 3-ClCA and 3-BrCA are isostructural. We also report a high-temperature phase transformation from a γ-type structure to a β-type structure for a solid solution of 3-ClCA and 3-BrCA (with a molar ratio close to 1:1). The γ polymorph of the solid solution is isostructural with the γ polymorphs of pure 3-ClCA and pure 3-BrCA, while the β-type structure produced in the phase transformation is structurally similar to the β polymorph of pure 3-BrCA

Regional Initiatives in Support of Surveillance in East Africa: The East Africa Integrated Disease Surveillance Network (EAIDSNet) Experience.

The East African Integrated Disease Surveillance Network (EAIDSNet) was formed in response to a growing frequency of cross-border malaria outbreaks in the 1990s and a growing recognition that fragmented disease interventions, coupled with weak laboratory capacity, were making it difficult to respond in a timely manner to the outbreaks of malaria and other infectious diseases. The East Africa Community (EAC) partner states, with financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation, established EAIDSNet in 2000 to develop and strengthen the communication channels necessary for integrated cross-border disease surveillance and control efforts. The objective of this paper is to review the regional EAIDSNet initiative and highlight achievements and challenges in its implementation. Major accomplishments of EAIDSNet include influencing the establishment of a Department of Health within the EAC Secretariat to support a regional health agenda; successfully completing a regional field simulation exercise in pandemic influenza preparedness; and piloting a web-based portal for linking animal and human health disease surveillance. The strategic direction of EAIDSNet was shaped, in part, by lessons learned following a visit to the more established Mekong Basin Disease Surveillance (MBDS) regional network. Looking to the future, EAIDSNet is collaborating with the East, Central and Southern Africa Health Community (ECSA-HC), EAC partner states, and the World Health Organization to implement the World Bank-funded East Africa Public Health Laboratory Networking Project (EAPHLNP). The network has also begun lobbying East African countries for funding to support EAIDSNet activities

Crystal structure of tert-butyl 2-phenylethylcarbamate, C13H19NO2

Abstract C13H19NO2, monoclinic, P21/n (no. 14), a = 5.2692(3) Å, b = 13.8663(9) Å, c = 17.8020(13) Å, β = 93.323(6)°, V = 1298.50(15), Z = 4, R gt(F) = 0.0590, wR ref(F 2) = 0.1932, T = 293 K.</jats:p

Treatment of shigella infections: why sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, tetracyclines and ampicillin should no longer be used

Background: Bloody diarrhoea results in high morbidity and mortality especially in developing countries with shigellosis being the main cause of acute bloody diarrhoea. The use of appropriate antimicrobial agents in the treatment of acute diarrheal disease shortens the duration of illness and bacterial shedding leading to a reduction in morbidity and mortality. Treatment options for many infections are becoming limited due to globally emerging antibiotic resistance. Globally, resistance of shigella species to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX), tetracyclines and ampicillin has been reported with subsequent recommendations of not using these antimicrobial drugs for empirical therapy of acute bloody diarrhoea.Objective: To establish the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and antimicrobial drug use for treatment of shigella species in patients with acute bloody diarrhoea.Design: A hospital based case control study.Setting: Six health facilities, three in Kilifi County and three in Nairobi County.Subject: A total of 284 stool specimens were collected from patients who fitted the standard cases definition for acute bloody diarrhoea.Results: Eighty (28.2%) bacterial isolates were recovered from 284 stool samples collected from cases presenting with acute bloody diarrhoea of which 67 (83.8%) were Shigella species, nine (11.3%) were Enteroinvassive Escherichia coli isolates, three (3.8%) were Salmonella Typhi and one (1.3%) were Yersinia enterocolitica. Shigella isolates had high resistance to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (97%), tetracycline (83.6%) ampicillin (58.2%) and chloramphenicol (20.9%). The isolates showed low resistance to nalidixic (4.5%) and ciprofloxacin (3.0%) while there was no resistance to ceftriaxone. The most common multidrug resistance pattern detected in Shigella strains combined sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, amoxicillin/ampicillin and tetracyclines.Antibiotic prescriptions were given to 243(85.6%) of the patients presenting with acute bloody diarrhoea. Among these, 94 (38.7%) were given prescriptions for ciprofloxacin, 53 (21.8%) for sulfamethaxazole-trimethiprin and 36(14.8%) for Tetracyclines. Chloramphenicol, amoxicillin/ampicillin, nalidixic acid and ceftriaxone were prescribed to 10.7 %, 3.7%, 2.9% and 0.4% of the patients respectively. A total of 123 (51%) received antibiotics which were ranked to have high resistance (sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, tetracyclines ampicillin and chloramphenicol).Conclusion: The high rates of antimicrobial resistance among the commonly prescribed antimicrobials such as sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, tetracycline, ampicillin and chloramphenicol is of major concern. Despite recommendations discouraging the empirical use of sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, tetracycline, ampicillin and chloramphenicol for treatment of acute bloody diarrhoea, more than half of the patients with acute bloody diarrhoea were still treated with these antibiotics.There is need to train health care workers on the proper management of acute bloody diarrhoea and the importance of adhering to the clinical guidelines