Childhood antecedents of Agreeableness: A longitudinal study from preschool to late adolescence

Although the consensus view is that Agreeableness originates from childhood difficultness and regulatory deficits, few studies have investigated such assumptions longitudinally. In this study, we examined this issue by assessing enduring and mediating effects of self-regulation as well as the impact of parenting behaviors on the development of Agreeableness from preschool to late adolescence. Longitudinal data from 965 Norwegian families following children from 1.5 years to 16.5 years were used. Path analyses revealed childhood difficultness at age 4 to be related to Agreeableness at age 16.5; this effect was mediated through emotion regulation in late childhood. However, such mediation effects were primarily found when parents used punitive practices towards their children. Our findings point to personality coherence throughout development

Maternal Psychological Distress and Offspring Psychological Adjustment in Emerging Adulthood: Findings from Over 18 Years

Objective: To examine the long-term prediction of psychological maladaptive (i.e., symptoms of anxiety and depression) and adaptive adjustment (i.e., self-efficacy) in emerging adult offspring from trajectories of maternal psychological distress from toddlerhood to adolescence. Method: Trajectories of maternal psychological distress (low, moderate, high, and low-rising patterns) from toddlerhood (age 1.5 years) to adolescence (age 14.5 years) were used to predict psychological adjustment in emerging adult offspring (age 18–20 years) (n 5 400). Results: Adverse maternal distress trajectories during childhood were linked to maladaptive and adaptive adjustment in adult offspring. Consistently high maternal distress levels experienced across childhood predicted higher symptoms of anxiety and depression and lower self-efficacy than low maternal distress trajectories. Two other adverse maternal distress trajectories (consistently moderate and low-rising patterns) compared with the low trajectory predicted higher offspring depressive symptoms. The findings persisted when adjusting for potential confounders: offspring gender and maternal education, relationship status, language, and economy. Conclusion: The current study showed longitudinal multiinformant impact from adverse maternal distress trajectories to adult offspring maladjustment over 18 years, emphasizing the importance of early identification and prevention

Nuancing the role of social skills-A longitudinal study of early maternal psychological distress and adolescent depressive symptoms

Background: Social skills might play an important role for the relationship between maternal psychological distress and subsequent development of depressive symptoms. The majority perspective is that social skills is adaptive and protective, but there is a need to also highlight the potential maladaptive effect of social skills in some settings or for some sub groups. The current study examined the longitudinal interplay between maternal-reported psychological distress in early childhood (age 1.5), and offspring reports on social skills and depressive symptoms in early (age 12.5) and middle adolescence (age 14.5). Methods: We used data from the Tracking Opportunities and Problems Study (TOPP), a community-based longitudinal study following Norwegian families to examine direct links and interactions between early maternal distress (measured with the Hopkins Symptom Checklist) and early adolescent offspring social skills (measured with the Social Skills Rating System) and middle adolescent depressive symptoms (measured with the Moods and Feelings Questionnaire) in 370 families (in total 740 mothers and adolescents). Results: Exposure to childhood maternal distress predicted offspring depressive symptoms in middle adolescence. Higher social skills in early adolescence predicted lower levels of depressive symptoms for girls, but not for boys, in middle adolescence. An interaction effect was found in which adolescents exposed to early maternal distress who reported high social skills in early adolescence had the highest level of depressive symptoms in middle adolescence. Conclusions: The findings highlight the nuances in the role of social skills for adolescent depressive symptoms – having the potential to be both adaptive as well as maladaptive for some subgroups (those experiencing maternal psychological distress). This has important implications for social skill programs

Nuancing the role of social skills-A longitudinal study of early maternal psychological distress and adolescent depressive symptoms

Background Social skills might play an important role for the relationship between maternal psychological distress and subsequent development of depressive symptoms. The majority perspective is that social skills is adaptive and protective, but there is a need to also highlight the potential maladaptive effect of social skills in some settings or for some sub groups. The current study examined the longitudinal interplay between maternal-reported psychological distress in early childhood (age 1.5), and offspring reports on social skills and depressive symptoms in early (age 12.5) and middle adolescence (age 14.5). Methods We used data from the Tracking Opportunities and Problems Study (TOPP), a community-based longitudinal study following Norwegian families to examine direct links and interactions between early maternal distress (measured with the Hopkins Symptom Checklist) and early adolescent offspring social skills (measured with the Social Skills Rating System) and middle adolescent depressive symptoms (measured with the Moods and Feelings Questionnaire) in 370 families (in total 740 mothers and adolescents). Results Exposure to childhood maternal distress predicted offspring depressive symptoms in middle adolescence. Higher social skills in early adolescence predicted lower levels of depressive symptoms for girls, but not for boys, in middle adolescence. An interaction effect was found in which adolescents exposed to early maternal distress who reported high social skills in early adolescence had the highest level of depressive symptoms in middle adolescence. Conclusions The findings highlight the nuances in the role of social skills for adolescent depressive symptoms – having the potential to be both adaptive as well as maladaptive for some subgroups (those experiencing maternal psychological distress). This has important implications for social skill programs

Beyond Conceptual Knowledge: The Impact of Children’s Theory-of-Mind on Dyadic Spatial Tasks

Recent studies show that Theory of Mind (ToM) has implications for children’s social competences and psychological well-being. Nevertheless, although it is well documented that children overall take advantage when they have to resolve cognitive problems together with a partner, whether individual difference in ToM is one of the mechanisms that could explain cognitive performances produced in social interaction has received little attention. This study examines to what extent ToM explains children’s spatial performances in a dyadic situation. The sample includes 66 boys and girls between the ages of 5-9 years, who were tested for their ToM and for their competence to resolve a Spatial task involving mental rotation and spatial perspective taking, first individually and then in a dyadic condition. Results showed, in accordance with previous research, that children performed better on the Spatial task when they resolved it with a partner. Specifically, children’s ToM was a better predictor of their spatial performances in the dyadic condition than their age, gender and spatial performances in the individual setting. The findings are discussed in terms of the relation between having a conceptual understanding of the mind and the practical implications of this knowledge for cognitive performances in social interaction regarding mental rotation and spatial perspective taking

Emotions in motion: impact of emotion understanding on children’s peer action coordination

Peer action coordination has been often studied in terms of its underlying cognitive mechanisms, and little is known about its emotional processes. The aim of the present study was to investigate the extent to which children’s emotion understanding explains their coordination of actions with a peer in a cooperative sensorimotor problem-solving task. Sixty-eight 5- to 9-year-old children were assessed for their emotion understanding with the Test of Emotion Comprehension (TEC) and for their problem-solving capacities with a sensorimotor task in an individual setting (individual sensorimotor skills) and in a cooperative setting (peer action coordination). The results showed that higher levels of emotion understanding significantly explained greater peer action coordination, even when controlling for age, gender and the child’s individual sensorimotor skills. The findings point to the existence of emotional mechanisms – more specifically the role of emotion understanding – underlying successful coordination of actions in peer interaction. Theoretical and educational implications of having emotion understanding abilities for coordinating actions with others are discussed

Longitudinal Pathways From Shyness in Early Childhood to Personality in Adolescence: Do Peers Matter?

Temperamental shyness in childhood is theorized to be an important contributor for adolescent personality. However, empirical evidence for such pathways is scarce. Using longitudinal data (N = 939 children, 51% boys) across 17 years, the aim of this study was to examine how shyness development throughout childhood predicted personality traits in adolescence, and the role of peers in these associations. Results from piecewise latent growth curve modeling showed early shyness levels to predict lower emotional stability and openness in adolescence, whereas early shyness levels and growth across childhood predicted lower extraversion. Peer problems in early adolescence accounted for these associations. This study is the first to demonstrate the role of childhood shyness and peer relations for adolescents’ personality development

Parenting practice in Norway - a mixed methods sequential explanatory study of emotion socialization

Parents play a central role in children's development (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2013). Current literature offers substantial knowledge about how parental practices are linked to children's development, as well as how various parenting styles affect children's well-being and mental health (Blaasvær & Ames, 2019). However, there's limited insight into the predominant parental practices today and the reasons behind parents' approaches. Some evidence points to the influence of parents' backgrounds on their parenting styles, including their experiences of care and abuse as children (Greene et al., 2020), personality (van Ijzendoorn et al., 2020), their partners' parenting styles (Rothenberg, 2019), neighborhood factors (Jocson & McLoyd, 2015), financial circumstances (Hyggen et al., 2018), and cultural backgrounds (Friberg & Bjørnset, 2019). Nonetheless, we still lack comprehensive understanding of the determinants of parental practices, especially the distinction between environmental and genetic factors (McGuire, 2003). Norway and Scandinavia are uniquely positioned, with notable aspects like gender equality and extended parental leave (SSB, 2019a). This underscores the importance of understanding parenting practices within the Norwegian context (Bufdir, 2020). The aim of this project is to shed light on the factors influencing parenting practices in Norway. We will focus on parenting styles related to how parents serve as role models, guiding children in understanding, managing, and expressing emotions in social contexts, termed as emotion socialization (Eisenberg et al., 1998). Employing a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design (Ivankova et al., 2006), this research will use a quantitative generational twin/sibling design, followed by a qualitative study involving twins. This qualitative segment will explore parental interactions and emotional socialization with their children, and their views on their parenting approaches and the factors shaping them. To our knowledge, no prior sibling or generational studies have specifically addressed emotion socialization. Such a design enables us to determine the extent to which parenting styles are influenced by psychosocial factors, as opposed to heritability, and thus be amenable to interventions (Torvik et al., 2020). This project will provide groundbreaking knowledge on parenting practices in Norway, benefiting institutions like the Norwegian Directorate for Children, Youth and Family Affairs (Bufdir), practitioners, parents, and the broader research community. Our chosen themes, subjects, target demographics, and methods address existing gaps in the field. Our project will prioritize: • Parental emotion socialization practices. • Parents' introspections on their own parenting styles, factors influencing these styles, and the interplay between different parenting styles within families. • A sample that highlights differences between siblings or cousins who are parents, with an emphasis on parents from non-Norwegian cultural backgrounds. Data will be collected from both mothers and fathers within the same family. • A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. 1.6 Design: comparing siblings with different experiences Parenting styles that remain consistent over time are, to some extent, anchored in the parents' dispositions (Prinzie et al., 2009). The underlying factors for these, whether known or unknown, might have familial patterns, influenced by the upbringing environment from the parents' childhood and genetic predispositions for certain traits (Belsky & Jaffee, 2006). We intend to employ a robust research design capable of illuminating the environmental determinants of parenting practices. By accounting for and eliminating factors shared in the parents' childhood environment and genetic influences, variations in the parents' reports can more accurately be attributed to environmental factors experienced throughout an individual parent's life. This approach aligns with the "maximum variation principle" in mixed-methods sequential design (Ivankova et al., 2006). This methodological choice is scientifically innovative and offers fresh insights into parenting factors that aren't dictated by stable parental dispositions (Lahey & D'Onofrio, 2010). Such understanding is pivotal when considering areas of influence for entities like aid agencies. 1.7 Aims This project aims to identify and understand how parents address their children's emotions, the potential differences between mothers' and fathers' parenting practices, and the factors influencing these practices in the Norwegian context. This understanding can lead to improved guidance for parents, which, in the long run, could influence how parents manage their emotions. This could contribute to a better quality of life and improved mental health for children. Aim 1: Emotion Socialization The primary focus of this study is on parents' emotion socialization within a Norwegian cultural context. Both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the study will explore how parents approach their roles, emphasizing emotion-socializing parenting styles. The quantitative segment will also delve into which socio-demographic, familial (genetic, upbringing family, partner, and children), and other environmental factors relate to parents' emotion socialization. The qualitative portion seeks a deeper comprehension of variations in emotional socialization across different environmental and cultural settings, examining how parents communicate emotions with their children and their understanding of how they, as parents, address their children's feelings. Aim 2: Differences in Parenting Styles We will address the following questions: 1. How are different parenting styles connected to parent characteristics and the familial social environment? 2. How do disparities in parenting styles influence the parental relationship? 3. How do variations in parenting styles interact with children’s emotion regulation and functioning, such as externalizing and internalizing issues? In the quantitative research, among other inquiries, we pose questions like: "Are there differences between mothers' and fathers' parenting styles?" and "Are variations in parenting style correlated with a child's mental health, e.g., emotion regulation?". The qualitative section will probe deeper into parents' experiences, management, and discussions about differences in parenting styles. Aim 3: Cultural Framework Conditions We aim to discern how cultural frameworks shape parenting styles, particularly focusing on emotion socialization practices. In the quantitative research, we will explore potential associations between cultural frameworks (like parents' and grandparents' countries of birth) and parenting styles. We plan to investigate if such relationships are influenced by factors like financial status, education, and cross-cultural partnerships. Further, we'll assess the potential moderating impact of cultural background on gender differences in parenting styles and the relationship between children's emotion regulation and parenting style. The qualitative analysis will capture parents' reflections and stories about how their parenting practices are molded by cultural framework conditions, encompassing beliefs about emotions. 2 Methods 2.1 Design We will employ a sequential combination of quantitative and qualitative methods (Ivankova et al., 2006) (see Figure 1). Hypotheses regarding connections between specific conditions (e.g., predictors of parenting styles) necessitate quantitative methods. Yet, the study also delves into broad, open-ended questions concerning parents' perceptions of their own parental practices. These areas, about which current literature offers limited knowledge—such as how parents communicate and handle differences in parenting styles, or how they believe cultural frameworks influence their parenting—may be more effectively explored through a qualitative approach (Adler et al., 2019; Levitt et al., 2017). Qualitative interviews and observations can enrich the insights gleaned from quantitative results, and the methodological combination within the same topic offers a more comprehensive understanding than what each method might provide on its own. That said, combining methods is challenging. This is both because it demands diverse expertise from the researchers and because data collection and processing differ between the methods. Realizing this combined approach within the project's framework would not be feasible without access to substantial resources, including researchers with varied backgrounds and students. A random selection of parents from specific groups of interest will be chosen from the National Register of Citizens and invited to complete questionnaires on topics central to the quantitative segment of the study. Those who respond to the initial questionnaire will also be asked to complete another short questionnaire about their emotion-socializing parenting behaviors on three consecutive occasions. This procedure will help capture variations in parenting styles and ensure the most reliable measurement of the study's focus