The Cultural Evolution of Democracy: Saltational Changes in A Political Regime Landscape

Transitions to democracy are most often considered the outcome of historical modernization processes. Socio-economic changes, such as increases in per capita GNP, education levels, urbanization and communication, have traditionally been found to be correlates or ‘requisites’ of democratic reform. However, transition times and the number of reform steps have not been studied comprehensively. Here we show that historically, transitions to democracy have mainly occurred through rapid leaps rather than slow and incremental transition steps, with a median time from autocracy to democracy of 2.4 years, and overnight in the reverse direction. Our results show that autocracy and democracy have acted as peaks in an evolutionary landscape of possible modes of institutional arrangements. Only scarcely have there been slow incremental transitions. We discuss our results in relation to the application of phylogenetic comparative methods in cultural evolution and point out that the evolving unit in this system is the institutional arrangement, not the individual country which is instead better regarded as the ‘host’ for the political system

Simulation of developmental changes in action potentials with ventricular cell models

During cardiomyocyte development, early embryonic ventricular cells show spontaneous activity that disappears at a later stage. Dramatic changes in action potential are mediated by developmental changes in individual ionic currents. Hence, reconstruction of the individual ionic currents into an integrated mathematical model would lead to a better understanding of cardiomyocyte development. To simulate the action potential of the rodent ventricular cell at three representative developmental stages, quantitative changes in the ionic currents, pumps, exchangers, and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ kinetics were represented as relative activities, which were multiplied by conductance or conversion factors for individual ionic systems. The simulated action potential of the early embryonic ventricular cell model exhibited spontaneous activity, which ceased in the simulated action potential of the late embryonic and neonatal ventricular cell models. The simulations with our models were able to reproduce action potentials that were consistent with the reported characteristics of the cells in vitro. The action potential of rodent ventricular cells at different developmental stages can be reproduced with common sets of mathematical equations by multiplying conductance or conversion factors for ionic currents, pumps, exchangers, and SR Ca2+ kinetics by relative activities

Distribution of a persistent sodium current across the ventricular wall in guinea pigs.

A tetrodotoxin-sensitive persistent sodium current, I(pNa), was found in guinea pig ventricular myocytes by whole-cell patch clamping. This current was characterized in cells derived from the basal left ventricular subendocardium, midmyocardium, and subepicardium. Midmyocardial cells show a statistically significant (P<0.05) smaller I(pNa) than subendocardial and subepicardial myocytes. There was no significant difference in I(pNa) current density between subepicardial and subendocardial cells. Computer modeling studies support a role of this current in the dispersion of action potential duration across the ventricular wall

Regulation of cardiac excitation–contraction coupling by action potential repolarization: role of the transient outward potassium current (Ito)

The cardiac action potential (AP) is critical for initiating and coordinating myocyte contraction. In particular, the early repolarization period of the AP (phase 1) strongly influences the time course and magnitude of the whole-cell intracellular Ca2+ transient by modulating trans-sarcolemmal Ca2+ influx through L-type Ca2+ channels (ICa,L) and Na-Ca exchangers (ICa,NCX). The transient outward potassium current (Ito) has kinetic properties that make it especially effective in modulating the trajectory of phase 1 repolarization and thereby cardiac excitation-contraction coupling (ECC). The magnitude of Ito varies greatly during cardiac development, between different regions of the heart, and is invariably reduced as a result of heart disease, leading to corresponding variations in ECC. In this article, we review evidence supporting a modulatory role of Ito in ECC through its influence on ICa,L, and possibly ICa,NCX. We also discuss differential effects of Ito on ECC between different species, between different regions of the heart and in heart disease