Microbiological quality and preservative capacity of commonly available cosmetics in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Ten brands of cosmetics were randomly purchased from shops in Dar es Salaam, and were subjected to microbiological assessment for microbial quality, preservative capacity and identification of microbial contaminants. Aliquots of each cosmetic were uniformly spread-plated on agar plates to quantify, isolate and identify microbial contaminants using conventional microbiological methods. The cup-plate technique complemented by the dilution test was used for evaluation of cosmetic preservative capacity. Microbial contaminants were present in 70% of the cosmetics. The most frequently isolated and identified microbial contaminants were attributable to Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus and Trichophyton species. The cosmetics displayed inadequate preservative capacity evidenced by inability to lower the inherent bio-burdens to acceptable levels and to inhibit growth of the tested microorganisms. Such products can have detrimental effects on health status of consumers as consequence of their altered stability profiles and secondary microbial infections. Therefore, microbiological quality control of cosmetics available in the Tanzanian market should be re-enforced. Keywords: Preservative capacity, cosmetics, microbial quality, microorganismsEast and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol. 13 (2010) 3- 1

Microbiological Quality of Juice Beverages Available in Dar es Salaam and Resistance Profiles of Microbial Contaminants

Eight most widely available juice beverages each constituted by four extemporaneous and four industrially made juices were bought from different localities in Dar es Salaam. Extemporaneous juices were randomly collected using sterile containers. Each sample was microbiologically analyzed using conventional methods. The identified microbes were subjected to antimicrobial resistance assays against 15 commonly used antibiotics using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Reference strains of Escherichia coli (ATCC25922), Candida albicans (ATCC90028) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC25923) served as control microorganisms. Four microbial contaminants were isolated, namely Streptococcus spp, Escherichia coli, Staphylcoccus aureus, and Klebsiella spp. High content of contamination (4.1 × 105 cfu/ml of bacteria and 6.4 × 106 cfu/ml of fungi) were found in all extemporaneous juices. About 5.4 × 104 cfu/ml of bacteria and 6.8 × 104 cfu/ml of fungi were isolated from industrially produced juices. Microbial contaminants in juices exceeded acceptable limits by 100-fold. The Streptococcus spp and Escherichia coli isolates were resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin, ceftriaxone and doxycycline.Keywords: Antimicrobial resistance, microbial contamination, extemporaneously and industrially made juicesEast and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol. 14 (2011) 81-8

The role of pharmacists in diabetes management in Zanzibar and Dar es Salaam regions, Tanzania

A cross sectional descriptive study was conducted in public diabetes clinics, hospital and community pharmacies in vicinity of diabetes clinics in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar to investigate the role of pharmacists in management of diabetes and diabetic patients’ care. Face to face interviews were conducted with patients, health workers and pharmacists. A total of 191 subjects were interviewed. Of those, 115 were patients, 18 health workers at the diabetes clinics and 58 pharmacists. Out of 18 health workers, none was pharmacist, and of those 13 (72.2%) were also involved in dispensing medicines. Majority (71%) of the interviewed patients were able to describe their medications, knew about the appropriate storage conditions and how to use them. Seventy-six percent (n=87) of the patients were aware of risks associated with non-adherence to medication regimen and symptoms of their disease conditions. Diabetesassociated complications and mitigation of the same were familiar to 64% and 72% of the patients, respectively. Pharmacists were not directly involved in diabetes patient care in clinics. Diabetic patients were managed by doctors and nurses. Procurement and storage of anti-diabetics were the main roles of hospital pharmacists. On the contrary, of 58 pharmacists, 51 (88%) community pharmacists were involved in counseling patients on storage and use of medicines. Based on these results, patients could not appreciate the roles of pharmacist in diabetes care. Therefore, pharmacists need to update their knowledge on diabetes through seminars and continuing education and professional development and thus be able to actively participate in the diabetes management and diabetes patient care.Keywords: Pharmacists, diabetes, patients, pharmacies, anti-diabetic drugsEast and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol.14 (2011) 64-7

The Role of the Pharmacist in Animal Health Care: Case Study in Ilala District, Dar es Salaam Tanzania

In this cross-sectional study, the role of pharmacists in animal health care, particularly in the distribution of veterinary medicines in community pharmacies in Dar es Salaam was investigated. Using a semi-structured questionnaire a total of 260 pharmacists were interviewed. The study revealed that majority of the pharmacists play a very limited role in the dispensing of veterinary pharmaceutical products. Pharmacists and veterinary practitioners should compliment each other for the betterment of animal health care. The study highlighted the necessity for introducing veterinary pharmacy lectures in the pharmacy undergraduate curriculum in Tanzania. It further recommends that the Pharmacy Council and the Tanzanian Ministry of Health and Social Welfare enforce continuing professional development as a precondition for the renewal of practice licences for all practising pharmacists.Keywords: Pharmacist, veterinary medicines, veterinary surgeonEast and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol. 12 (2009) 34- 3

Evaluation of a social marketing intervention promoting oral rehydration salts in Burundi

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Diarrhea is the second leading cause of death for children under five in Burundi; however, use of oral rehydration salts (ORS), the recommended first-line treatment, remains low. In 2004, PSI/Burundi launched a social marketing intervention to promote ORASEL among caregivers of children under five; the product was relaunched in 2006 with a new flavor. This study evaluates the intervention after the ORASEL relaunch, which included mass media and interpersonal communication activities. The study looks at trends in ORASEL use in Burundi and in behavioral determinants that may be related to its use.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>In 2006 and 2007, PSI conducted household surveys among Burundian females of reproductive age (15-49). Both surveys used a two-stage sampling process to select 30 households in each of 115 rural and urban collines throughout the nation. Survey respondents were asked about diarrhea treatment-related behavior; key behavioral determinants; and exposure to the ORASEL intervention. Data were analyzed to identify trends over time, characteristics of ORASEL users, and associations between exposure to the intervention and changes in ORASEL use and related behavioral determinants.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>ORASEL use among caregivers at their children's last diarrheal episode increased significantly from 20% in 2006 to 30% in 2007, and there were also desirable changes in several behavioral determinants associated with ORASEL use. Evaluation analysis showed that a higher level of exposure to the social marketing campaign was associated with greater use of ORASEL and with significant improvements in perceived availability, knowledge of the signs of diarrhea and dehydration, social support, and self-efficacy.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>ORS use can be improved through social marketing and educational campaigns that make the public aware of the availability of the product, encourage dialogue about its use, and increase skills and confidence relating to correct product preparation and administration. Further interventions in Burundi and elsewhere should promote ORS through a variety of mass media and interpersonal communication channels, and should be rigorously evaluated in the context of the total market for diarrhea treatment products.</p

Screening of anti-dengue activity in methanolic extracts of medicinal plants

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Dengue fever regardless of its serotypes has been the most prevalent arthropod-borne viral diseases among the world population. The development of a dengue vaccine is complicated by the antibody-dependent enhancement effect. Thus, the development of a plant-based antiviral preparation promises a more potential alternative in combating dengue disease.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Present studies investigated the antiviral effects of standardised methanolic extracts of <it>Andrographis paniculata, Citrus limon, Cymbopogon citratus, Momordica charantia, Ocimum sanctum </it>and <it>Pelargonium citrosum </it>on dengue virus serotype 1 (DENV-1).</p> <p>Results</p> <p><it>O. sanctum </it>contained 88.6% of total flavonoids content, an amount that was the highest among all the six plants tested while the least was detected in <it>M. charantia</it>. In this study, the maximum non-toxic dose (MNTD) of the six medicinal plants was determined by testing the methanolic extracts against Vero E6 cells <it>in vitro</it>. Studies also determined that the MNTD of methanolic extract was in the decreasing order of <it>M. charantia </it>><it>C. limon </it>><it>P. citrosum, O. sanctum </it>><it>A. paniculata </it>><it>C. citratus</it>. Antiviral assay based on cytopathic effects (CPE) denoted by degree of inhibition upon treating DENV1-infected Vero E6 cells with MNTD of six medicinal plants showed that <it>A. paniculata </it>has the most antiviral inhibitory effects followed by <it>M. charantia</it>. These results were further verified with an <it>in vitro </it>inhibition assay using MTT, in which 113.0% and 98.0% of cell viability were recorded as opposed to 44.6% in DENV-1 infected cells. Although methanolic extracts of <it>O. sanctum </it>and <it>C. citratus </it>showed slight inhibition effect based on CPE, a significant inhibition was not reflected in MTT assay. Methanolic extracts of <it>C. limon </it>and <it>P. citrosum </it>did not prevent cytopathic effects or cell death from DENV-1.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The methanol extracts of <it>A. paniculata </it>and <it>M. charantia </it>possess the ability of inhibiting the activity of DENV-1 in <it>in vitro </it>assays. Both of these plants are worth to be further investigated and might be advantageous as an alternative for dengue treatment.</p

Prevalence of Urine Glucose-Associated Bacteriuria in Diabetics and Antibiotic Susceptibility Patterns of the Isolated Bacteria.

Objectives: This study aimed at determining the influence of urine glucose on prevalence of bacteriuria in diabetic patients and to carry out antibiotic susceptibility patterns testing on the isolated bacteria. Methods: This is cross-sectional study conducted at Diabetes Clinic-Muhimbili National Hospital, by collecting 133 midstream urine (MSU) specimens from 133 patients who were attending the clinic during the study period. The MSU specimens were then cultured on cystine lactose electrolyte deficient (CLED) agar medium using the standard wire loop technique. The isolated microorganisms were identified and microbial counts determined by using conventional methods. Urine glucose levels (UGLs) were determined using urinalysis reagent strips (Acon Laboratory Inc., USA). Results were interpreted and classified as negative, trace, positive (+), positive (++) or positive (+++). Antibiotic susceptibility patterns of the isolated bacteria were conducted using disk-diffusion method in accordance with National Committee on Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS) guidelines. Checklists of clinical histories were also used for collection of complementary data on the patient weight and age. All the obtained data were coded and entered in computer and then analyzed using computer software SPSS version 10. Results: Majority of the patients 118(88.7%) manifested no significant bacterial growth (NSBG). Out of the patients who manifested NSBG, majority (73%) had no/negative urine glucose levels (UGLs). Escherichia coli were the most frequently isolated microorganism (18.8%), which were also the most predominantly isolated microorganisms from patients with negative urine glucose levels. Klebsiella spp and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were found in all patients with glycosuria. More females (12%) manifested higher UGLs in comparison to males' counterpart (7.5%), which coincided with the higher bacterial counts in female diabetics. All the isolated microorganisms were found to be susceptible to nalidixic acid (30µg). Nevertheless, all the microorganisms were resistant to ampicillins (10µg), flucloxacillin (10µg) and tetracycline (30µg) with exception of E. coli which was susceptible to the latter drug. Conclusion: The study revealed that E. coli was the most frequently isolated microorganisms (18.8%) and bacteriuria was relatively more prevalent in female patients (25%) compared to males (16%). Notwithstanding, majority of the patients (88.7%) manifested NSBG. Direct correlation between bacteriuria and UGLs was observed though its relation is still unclear. The antibiotic resistances identified make it necessary for antibiotic susceptibility testing to be carried out prior antibiotic prescription. Tanzania Medical Journal Vol. 23 (1) 2008: pp. 16-1

Antibacterial quality of some antibiotics available in five administrative areas along the national borders of Tanzania

Kennedy D Mwambete Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Introduction: In developing countries like Tanzania, bacterial infections are becoming increasingly difficult to treat with available antibiotics. Poor quality antibiotics jeopardize the management of bacterial infections and contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance. Poor storage and harsh tropical climatic conditions accelerate deterioration of antibiotics. Hence, this study investigated the antibacterial effect of antibiotics available in five administrative regions along the national borders of Tanzania. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study involved the purchase of antibiotics from the Mwanza, Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, and Kagera administrative regions. The Kirby&ndash;Bauer disk diffusion method was employed to assess antibacterial effects of the antibiotics against Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. Inhibition zones (IZ) were determined as previously described. Analysis of variance was used to examine the IZ measured using test antibiotics to their respective control antibiotics; differences were considered significant at P&lt;0.05. Results: Seventy-six antibiotic samples from 22 manufacturers were tested. Six antibiotic samples were from anonymous manufacturers and 29 antibiotic samples had no manufacturing or expiration dates. Different samples of the same antibiotics produced variable results. IZ measured using different samples of ampicillin (AMP) and ciprofloxacin and their control antibiotics revealed significant differences when tested against S. typhi (P&lt;0.05). Samples of tetracycline and chloramphenicol resulted in IZ comparable to their controls against S. typhi. All samples of AMP yielded comparable IZ on Klebsiella spp., whereas samples of chloramphenicol and tetracycline exerted IZ against P. aeruginosa that were not statistically different from their respective control antibiotics (P&gt;0.05). Ambiguous antibacterial profiles were exhibited by samples of AMP, chloramphenicol, cotrimoxazole, and amoxicillin as compared to their respective control antibiotics. Conclusion: Differences in antibacterial effects were found among samples of the same type of antibiotic. Results suggest the existence of counterfeit and/or substandard drugs in Tanzania. Keywords: antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, counterfeit antibiotic