[Un]happy Together: Why the Supremacy Clause Preempts State Law Digital Performance Rights in Radio-Like Streaming of Pre-1972 Sound Recordings

Lovers of the music of Frank Sinatra, Elvis Presley, Etta James, and hundreds of other recording artists whose records were made before February 15, 1972, may soon have a hard time hearing these great artists on any satellite or Internet radio service. Recently, two federal district courts have found that state laws were violated when satellite radio broadcaster Sirius XM Radio included pre-1972 sound recordings in its broadcasts without the owners’ permission, but these courts did not consider-–and the parties did not argue-–how the Supremacy Clause applies to those state law claims. This article argues that state laws purporting to grant digital performance rights to pre-1972 sound recordings are necessarily preempted by the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution. This article contends that enforcement of those state laws would create a serious obstacle to “the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress” in enacting the Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act of 1995 (“DPRA”). The DPRA reflects Congress’ careful balancing of interests and recognition of the need for an easily administrable system of licensing, which Congress established through a complex and comprehensive compulsory licensing system. The Supremacy Clause thus preempts all state laws purporting to require licenses for digital performance rights or payment of royalties for the use of such rights by Internet or satellite radio stations beyond what is expressly provided for in the compulsory licensing system established by the DPRA, because permitting countless owners of individual pre-1972 sound recordings to assert claims for royalties and other damages outside of the compulsory licensing system would frustrate Congress’ goals in establishing that system. Part I of this article provides a brief overview of the federal rights at issue and the (very) brief history of performance rights in sound recordings, noting the absence of any express state law recognition of a performance right in sound recordings throughout most of the 20th century (other than short-lived decisions in two states over seventy-five years ago that focused on notices stamped on records purporting to prohibit a purchaser’s use of sound recordings on radio rather than a true performance right). It is only in very recent cases that courts in New York and California have recognized state law performance rights. However, they did so without considering Supremacy Clause preemption or how any state law performance rights might conflict with the federal statutory compulsory license regime established by the DPRA. Part II of the article explains the relevant legislative history and provisions of the DPRA governing the comprehensive licensing system. That statutory license and rules governing it were established to provide an efficient mechanism for digital Internet and satellite radio services to operate in compliance with their legal obligations. In Part III, the article explains Supremacy Clause doctrine and distinguishes the Supreme Court’s opinion in Goldstein v. California, which rejected a Supremacy Clause challenge to a state record piracy law in 1973. It demonstrates why neither the Court’s decision in Goldstein nor the language of the Copyright Act’s express preemption clause, which exempts state laws governing pre-1972 sound recordings from statutory preemption, precludes conflict preemption under the Supremacy Clause in the context of digital radio services that are subject to the federal compulsory license. Part IV of the article acknowledges that preemption of state law protection for digital performances of pre-1972 sound recordings raises equitable concerns, as it leaves some of this nation’s most treasured musical artists uncompensated for use of their works by Internet and satellite streaming services while the authors of more current works are compensated. However, given the delicate balancing that has gone into Congress’ recognition of a limited digital performance right and creation of a compulsory statutory licensing system, any remedy for the inequity to owners of pre-1972 sound recordings must be left to Congress. Allowing individual courts in individual states to craft a patchwork of inconsistent remedies would disrupt the balance struck by Congress and interfere with the functioning of the compulsory license system for digital sound recording performances. This is a result that the Supremacy Clause does not permit

Analysis of HHS Final Rules on Reinsurance, Risk Corridors and Risk Adjustment

Summarizes final rules for states and health insurance plans for minimizing adverse selection under federal healthcare reform and highlights changes from proposed rules. Outlines implications for states and plans, as well as outstanding issues

Floating Widgets: Interaction with Acoustically-Levitated Widgets

Acoustic levitation enables new types of human-computer interface, where the content that users interact with is made up from small objects held in mid-air. We show that acoustically-levitated objects can form mid-air widgets that respond to interaction. Users can interact with them using in-air hand gestures. Sound and widget movement are used as feedback about the interaction

A Generation of Racketeers? Eliminating Civil RICO Liability for Copyright Infringement

This article addresses questions raised in recent years by the increasingly severe penalties for copyright infringement, focusing on potential civil RICO liability as illustrated by a hypothetical peer-to-peer file-sharing example. Because civil litigation has been, by a wide margin, the favored means for pursuing copyright violators, the criminal copyright infringement statute remains largely untested, and the few cases that address its provisions offer conflicting interpretations. Now that RICO penalties are available in civil copyright infringement cases, courts faced with resolving the ambiguities in the application of the criminal copyright infringement provisions will need to reconcile divergent policies. To effectuate its remedial purpose, courts broadly interpret the RICO statute--even beyond the scope intended by Congress--yet rely heavily on the legislative history of the Copyright Act to balance the interest of copyright owners in controlling their works with that of the public in accessing them

Using Guided Reading to Improve Reading Achievement

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of guided reading on the reading achievement and growth of third grade students. The hypothesis was that students (n = 12) would achieve at greater levels with a guided reading curriculum than a control group using a traditional basal reading curriculum (n = 15). The instrument used to test achievement was the 2005 Georgia Criterion Referenced Competency Test (CRCT). The students\u27 results were compared using the 2004 Georgia CRCT results as a pretest. The research showed that students who were taught reading using the guided reading format were more likely to show gains than students who were taught reading using a traditional basal reading program. Not only did students make gains in reading, but the benefits also extended into the areas of math and language arts. The findings of the study indicated that students taught using the guided reading approach achieved as well as or better than their counterparts in a traditional class

Analysis of HHS Proposed Rules on Reinsurance, Risk Corridors and Risk Adjustment

Offers questions and answers about rules for lessening the financial risk of health insurance issuers and exchanges under healthcare reform. Outlines steps for states and health plans, outstanding issues, and operational impact on states

Textured Surfaces for Ultrasound Haptic Displays

We demonstrate a technique for rendering textured haptic surfaces in mid-air, using an ultrasound haptic display. Our technique renders tessellated 3D `haptic' shapes with different waveform properties, creating surfaces with distinct perceptions

Great Mining Camps of Canada 2. The History and Geology of the Anyox Copper Camp, British Columbia

The Anyox copper mining camp played a key role in the early development of northwestern British Columbia. It was discovered in 1889 and through persistence and belief in the project (a common theme in modern exploration), it was explored and brought into production in 1914 by Granby Consolidated Mining, Smelting and Power Co., Ltd. A large, modern and self-sufficient town was built around the mine to accommodate, and care for, a large work force and their families, which reached a population of over 2500. Two electrical generating powerhouses were built, one coal fired and the other hydroelectric, to operate the mine, mill and smelter complex that produced blister copper (~99% purity). Over 21.73 million tonnes of copper ore, at an average recovered grade of 1.68% Cu, 10.8 g/t Ag and 0.20 g/t Au, were treated and smelted between 1914 and 1935 to produce 321 546 tonnes of copper, 206 309 kg (6.6 million oz) of silver, and 3773 kg (121 300 oz) of gold. Considering the remoteness of the mine and the technologies available at the time, this was a remarkable achievement and an indication of the quality of engineering, construction and management provided by Granby. The operation closed permanently when the copper market was decimated by the Great Depression, and whatever was salvageable was dismantled and shipped out. Since then, the area has seen episodic exploration activities and received scientific studies that have led to a modern understanding of the geological setting and origin of the Anyox copper deposits. The mafic volcanic and sedimentary host rocks at Anyox are assigned to the Upper Triassic to Upper Jurassic Hazelton and Bowser Lake groups, respectively. The massive sulfide lenses are volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits that originally formed at, or near the palaeo seafloor, by hydrothermal processes. The hydrothermal system was long-lived and precipitated sulfides mainly at the stratigraphic contact between the mafic volcanic and sedimentary host rocks, although some sulfides also occur in the immediate footwall and hanging-wall of this contact. An interval of cherty sedimentary rocks marks the contact and serves as an important stratigraphic marker for further exploration. The stratigraphic setting, hydrothermal alteration, style of mineralization and geochemistry of the mafic volcanic rocks are all consistent with the deposit having formed in a sediment-covered, spreading-ridge setting, such as Middle Valley on the northern Juan de Fuca Ridge, off the coast of British Columbia. It is noteworthy that the Hazelton Group also hosts the famous Eskay Creek gold deposit, which is about 200 km north of Anyox. Eskay Creek is a precious metal-rich variant of the VMS family and correlations between Anyox and Eskay Creek may stimulate additional phases of exploration and possibly further chapters in the history of Anyox. SOMMAIRE Le camp minier cuprifère d'Anyox a joué un rôle clé dans le développement du Nord-Ouest de la Colombie-Britannique. Découvert en 1889, il a été mis en production en 1914 par la Granby Consolidated Mining, Smelting and Power Co. Ltd., après qu'on y eut investi une bonne dose de foi et de persistance (thème très actuel de l'exploration contemporaine). Une grande ville moderne et autosuffisante a été construite autour de la mine permettant d'y accueillir et de répondre aux besoins d'une main-d'œuvre considérable et de leurs familles, une population qui a atteint 2 500 personnes. Deux centrales électriques y ont été construites, l'une au charbon et l'autre hydraulique. Ces deux centrales permettaient d'alimenter la mine, l'usine de traitement et la fonderie, un complexe permettant de produire du cuivre à soufflures d'une pureté de 99 % environ. Plus de 21,73 millions de tonnes de minerai de cuivre - à des teneurs moyennes de 1,68 % de Cu, 10,8 g/t d'Ag et 0,20 g/t d'Au - y ont été traitées entre 1914 et 1935, ce qui a donné 321 546 tonnes de cuivre, 206 309 kg (6,6 millions d'onces) d'argent, et 3 773 kg (121 000 onces) d'or. Considérant l'éloignement de la mine et les technologies disponibles alors, les résultats obtenus sont tout à fait remarquable et l'indication de la qualité de l'ingénierie, de la construction et de la gestion de Granby. Au moment de la Grande Dépression, alors que le prix du marché du cuivre s'est effondré, ce complexe minier a été fermé et tout ce qui en valait la peine a été démantelé et transporté ailleurs. Depuis lors, la région a été l'objet d'activité d'exploration et de recherches scientifiques épisodiques, ce qui a permis d'en tirer une compréhension moderne de son cadre géologique et de l'origine des gisements de cuivre d'Anyox. Les roches hôtes d'Anyox des Groupes de Hazelton et du lac Bowser sont des volcaniques mafiques et sédimentaires datant respectivement du Triassique supérieur et du Juras-sique supérieur. Les gisements de lentilles de sulfures massifs sont des sulfures massifs volcanogéniques (SMV) qui se sont formés à l'origine près ou sur le fond océanique par des processus hydrothermaux. Ce système hydrothermal qui a fonctionné longtemps a précipité des sulfures principalement au contact stratigraphique des roches volcaniques avec les roches sédimentaires hôtes, mais on trouve aussi des sulfures à proximité immédiate du toit et du plancher de ce contact. Un intervalle de roches sédimentaire siliceuses constitue un important marqueur stratigraphique. Le contexte stratigraphique, l'altération hydrother-male, le style de la minéralisation et la géochimie des roches volcaniques mafiques sont autant de facteurs sou-tenant l'hypothèse d'un gisement ayant été formé en milieu de crête de fond océanique migrante recouverte de sédiments, comme celle de Middle Valley de la portion nord de la crête de Juan de Fuca, au large de la côte de Colombie-Britannique. On notera avec intérêt que les roches du Groupe de Hazelton sont aussi les roches hôtes du fameux gisement d'or d'Eskay Creek, situé à environ 200 km au nord d'Anyox. Le gisement d'Eskay Creek est une variante riche en métaux précieux de la famille de la famille des SMV, et toutes corrélations établies entre Anyox et Eskay Creek pourraient relancer d'autres épisodes d'exploration, et ajouter d'autres chapitres à l'histoire d'Anyox

Placental-mediated increased cytokine response to lipopolysaccharides: a potential mechanism for enhanced inflammation susceptibility of the preterm fetus.

BackgroundCerebral palsy is a nonprogressive motor impairment syndrome that has no effective cure. The etiology of most cases of cerebral palsy remains unknown; however, recent epidemiologic data have demonstrated an association between fetal neurologic injury and infection/inflammation. Maternal infection/inflammation may be associated with the induction of placental cytokines that could result in increased fetal proinflammatory cytokine exposure, and development of neonatal neurologic injury. Therefore, we sought to explore the mechanism by which maternal infection may produce a placental inflammatory response. We specifically examined rat placental cytokine production and activation of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway in response to lipopolysaccharide exposure at preterm and near-term gestational ages.MethodsPreterm (e16) or near-term (e20) placental explants from pregnant rats were treated with 0, 1, or 10 μg/mL lipopolysaccharide. Explant integrity was assessed by lactate dehydrogenase assay. Interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis alpha levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. TLR4 and phosphorylated nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) protein expression levels were determined by Western blot analysis.ResultsAt both e16 and e20, lactate dehydrogenase levels were unchanged by treatment with lipopolysaccharide. After exposure to lipopolysaccharide, the release of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis alpha from e16 placental explants increased by 4-fold and 8-9-fold, respectively (P < 0.05 versus vehicle). Conversely, interleukin-6 release from e20 explants was not significantly different compared with vehicle, and tumor necrosis alpha release was only 2-fold higher (P < 0.05 versus vehicle) following exposure to lipopolysaccharide. Phosphorylated NFκB protein expression was significantly increased in the nuclear fraction from placental explants exposed to lipopolysaccharide at both e16 and e20, although TLR4 protein expression was unaffected.ConclusionLipopolysaccharide induces higher interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis alpha expression at e16 versus e20, suggesting that preterm placentas may have a greater placental cytokine response to lipopolysaccharide infection. Furthermore, increased phosphorylated NFκB indicates that placental cytokine induction may occur by activation of the TLR4 pathway