El carácter de la especialización olivarera en el sur de España (1750-1930). Ecología, campesinado e historia

Olive tree represents today the major tree concentration in Europe. Its great expansion started at 19th Century caused by liberal agrarian reforms and, traditionally, has been associated with agrarian modernization in Mediterranean basin due to the growing integration of its production in domestic and foreign markets. This paper seeks to review the causes and the origins its expansion introducing new methods derived form environmental history and social history. We study local case studies which historical sources allow us to profound in this subject with more detail than at aggregate scale, starting at 1750 (when olive land was scarce) and finishing at 1930 (once consummated the firs great expansion known as “golden age”). The main findings show the causes of the weak specialization before 19th Century; the multifunctional character of traditional olive production; how its expansion was also determined by ecological particularities of this crop and by its function on substitute deficit products like woodfire or animal feed; and, finally, how small farming was behind its expansion using olive orchards like a peasant productive strategy

«Cuántos siglos de aceituna». El carácter de la expansión olivarera en el sur de España (1750-1900).

El olivar andaluz representa hoy en día la mayor concentración arbórea de toda Europa. Su gran expansión se inició en el siglo XIX al socaire de las reformas agrarias liberales y tradicionalmente se ha asociado con la modernización agraria en el Mediterráneo en la medida en la que su producción se integró en los mercados nacionales y exteriores. Este trabajo propone una revisión de las causas y los orígenes de su expansión introduciendo nuevos métodos de estudio propios de la historia ambiental y la historia social. Utilizaremos casos de estudio locales cuyas fuentes nos permiten profundizar en esta cuestión con más detalle que a escala agregada, empezando en 1750 (cuando la superficie de olivar era escasa) y terminando en 1930 (una vez consumada la primera gran expansión conocida como «edad de oro»). Los principales resultados señalan las causas de la débil especialización anterior al XIX; el carácter multifuncional de la producción olivarera tradicional; que su expansión también estuvo determinada por las particularidades ecológicas de este cultivo y por la función que cumplió para sustituir productos deficitarios como la leña o el forraje; y, finalmente, que la pequeña propiedad estuvo detrás de su expansión haciendo de su aprovechamiento una estrategia productiva campesina.Andalusian olive plantations currently represent the greatest concentration of trees in Europe. Large‐scale expansion began in the 19th century thanks to liberal agrarian reforms and is traditionally associated with agrarian modernisation in the Mediterranean basin, due to its increasing integration into domestic and foreign markets. In this paper, new methods derived from environmental and social history will be introduced to review the causes and origins of this expansion. The use of local case studies from 1750 (when olive plantations were scarce) to 1930 (the end of the ‘golden age’, or first great expansion period) will make it possible to examine the issues in greater depth and detail than an aggregate study. Main findings include the causes of weak specialisation prior to the 19th century; the multifunctionality of traditional olive production; how expansion was also determined by the ecological particularities of this crop and its use as a substitute for scarce products such as firewood or animal feed; and how expansion was driven by small‐scale farming as a productive strategy for the peasantry

El carácter de la especialización olivarera en el sur de España (1750-1930). Ecología, campesinado e historia

Olive tree represents today the major tree concentration in Europe. Its great expansion started at 19th Century caused by liberal agrarian reforms and, traditionally, has been associated with agrarian modernization in Mediterranean basin due to the growing integration of its production in domestic and foreign markets. This paper seeks to review the causes and the origins its expansion introducing new methods derived form environmental history and social history. We study local case studies which historical sources allow us to profound in this subject with more detail than at aggregate scale, starting at 1750 (when olive land was scarce) and finishing at 1930 (once consummated the firs great expansion known as “golden age”). The main findings show the causes of the weak specialization before 19th Century; the multifunctional character of traditional olive production; how its expansion was also determined by ecological particularities of this crop and by its function on substitute deficit products like woodfire or animal feed; and, finally, how small farming was behind its expansion using olive orchards like a peasant productive strategy.history of the olive tree, environmental history, agricultural history, agrarian specialization, peasantry

Long-term trajectories of the C footprint of N fertilization in Mediterranean agriculture (Spain, 1860–2018)

The authors are grateful to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (AgroSceNA-UP, PID2019-107972RB-I00), the Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Tecnologia Agraria y Alimentaria of Spain (MACSUR02-APCIN2016-0005-00-00) and the Comunidad de Madrid, Spain (AGRISOST-CM S2018/BAA-4330). E Aguilera is supported by a Juan de la Cierva research contract from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (IJC2019-040699-I and FJCI-2017-34077). L Lassaletta is supported by Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) and European Commission ERDF Ramon y Cajal Grant (RYC-2016-20269), Programa Propio from UPM, and acknowledges the Comunidad de Madrid (Spain) and structural funds 2014-2020 (ERDF and ESF). A Sanz-Cobena gratefully acknowledges the Autonomous Community of Madrid and UPM for their economic support through the research project APOYOJOVENESNFW8ZQ-42-XE8B5K. All authors are grateful to this project for covering the publication fees. The authors are very grateful to the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture for gathering and providing detailed information with respect to crop production and management. The authors gratefully acknowledge the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive and useful suggestions.Synthetic nitrogen (N) fertilization has helped boost agricultural yields, but it is also responsible for direct and indirect greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Fertilizer-related emissions are also promoted by irrigation and manure application, which has increased with livestock industrialization. Spanish agriculture provides a paradigmatic example of high industrialization under two different climates (temperate and Mediterranean) and two contrasting water management regimes (rainfed and irrigated). In this study, we estimated the historical evolution of the C footprint of N fertilization (including all the life cycle GHG emissions related to N fertilization) in Spanish agriculture from 1860 to 2018 at the province level (50 provinces) for 122 crops, using climate-specific N2O emission factors (EFs) adjusted to the type of water management and the N source (synthetic fertilizer, animal manure, crop residues and soil N mineralization) and considering changes in the industrial efficiency of N fertilizer production. Overall, N-related GHG emissions increased ∼12-fold, up to 10–14 Tg CO2e yr−1 in the 2010s, with much higher growth in Mediterranean than in temperate areas. Direct N2O EFs of N fertilizers doubled due to the expansion of irrigation, synthetic fertilizers and liquid manure, associated with livestock industrialization. Synthetic N production dominated the emissions balance (55%–60% of GHGe in the 21st century). Large energy efficiency gains of industrial fertilizer production were largely offset by the changes in the fertilizer mix. Downstream N2O emissions associated with NH3 volatilization and NO3 − leaching increased tenfold. The yield-scaled carbon footprint of N use in Spanish agriculture increased fourfold, from 4 and 5 Mg CO2e Mg N−1 to 16–18 Mg CO2e Mg N−1. Therefore, the results reported herein indicate that increased productivity could not offset the growth in manufacture and soil emissions related to N use, suggesting that mitigation efforts should not only aim to increase N use efficiency but also consider water management, fertilizer type and fertilizer manufacture as key drivers of emissions.Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness PID2019-107972RB-I00Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Tecnologia Agraria y Alimentaria of Spain MACSUR02-APCIN2016-0005-00-00Comunidad de Madrid AGRISOST-CM S2018/BAA-4330Juan de la Cierva research contract from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness IJC2019-040699-I FJCI-2017-34077Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO)European Commission ERDF Ramon y Cajal Grant RYC-2016-20269Programa Propio from UPMComunidad de Madrid European CommissionAutonomous Community of Madrid UPM APOYOJOVENESNFW8ZQ-42-XE8B5

El consumo de recursos en el siglo XX. Una revisión

Desde el siglo XX el hombre se ha convertido en el principal agente de transformación de la biosfera multiplicando por diez la extracción de materiales. El creciente consumo de recursos no renovables y la presión sobre los renovables ha hecho que el debate sobre los límites del crecimiento haya sido uno de los más importantes en materia de sustentabilidad desde los años 70. En los últimos años se han publicado nuevas series estadísticas sobre extracción y consumo de recursos que, por primera vez, nos permiten tener una idea aproximada de la evolución del uso de los recursos en todo el planeta y con una perspectiva de largo plazo. El objetivo de este trabajo es el de ofrecer una síntesis histórica de los principales resultados revisando el debate de los límites del crecimiento en perspectiva histórica

Las bioenergías en España. Una serie de producción, consumo y stocks entre 1860 y 2010

Este documento es la base metodológica y estadística de una nueva serie de consumo de bioenergías en España entre 1860 y 2010. En el caso de las bioenergías leñosas, que han representado históricamente la mayor parte del consumo, estimamos también la producción primaria, la apropiación, el stock y el tipo de uso final. Se distingue el origen de la producción y el consumo de la biomasa leñosa entre forestal, olivar, viña y otros frutales y se realizan desagregaciones regionales a nivel de partido judicial entre 1860 y 1960. La serie final de consumo de bioenergía se presenta tanto en energía primaria (distinguiendo el tipo de fuente energética) y de energía final (distinguiendo el portador energético). Los principales resultados indican que: i) el consumo fue mayor que el estimado en otros trabajos hasta la fecha; ii) pueden observarse cuatro fases en el consumo de bioenergías: caída (1860-1913), vuelta a la leña (1913-1955), rápida caída, sobre todo, por el abandono de la leña forestal (1955-1980) y vuelta a las bioenergías desde 1980; iii) entre 1860 y 1960 se detectan fuertes disparidades regionales entre zonas con consumos de apenas 1 kg hab-1 día-1 y otras que casi alcanzaron los 5 kg hab-1 día-1; iv) en el suministro de bioenergías, la geografía también explica el tipo de producto consumido: en las zonas mediterráneas del país fue ganando peso el consumo de los residuos de cultivos leñosos, como el olivar, la viña y otros frutales, que se expandieron en muchas ocasiones sobre superficies forestales; y v) los stocks de biomasa leñosa se han multiplicado de forma sin precedentes desde mediados del siglo XX debido al abandono del monte, la introducción de especies de crecimiento rápido y la relocalización a zonas más productivas.This paper presents the methodological and statistical basis of a new data series of Spain's bioenergy consumption between 1860 and 2010. We have estimated the primary production, appropriation, and the type of final use of all woody biomass, which represents the most consumed bioenergy. The series distinguishes the production source, including forests, olives, vineyards, and the rest of woody fruit orchards, as well as regional disaggregation at partido judicial level (425 in Spain) between 1860 and 1960. The bioenergy consumption series is represented both in primary (by energy source) and final (by energy carrier) energy. Our findings point out that i) consumption was higher than traditionally assumed in the previous literature; ii) there are four major phases in the period, including a slow decline from 1860 to 1914, a return to firewood with a small increase until 1955, a rapid decline from then to 1980, and finally, a return to bioenergies (with modern uses) from 1980 to the present; iii) there are strong regional disparities in firewood consumption between 1860 and 1960, ranging from 1 to 5 kg hab-1 día-1; iv) in the supply of bioenergies, geography also explains the type of product consumed: in Mediterranean provinces, woody crop-based consumption gained prominence, as they expanded over traditional forest areas; and v) stock of woody biomass has multiplied unprecedently since the mid-20th Century due to the abandonment of forestlands, the introduction of fast-growing species, and the optimal geographical allocation

El consumo de recursos en el siglo XX. Una revisión

Desde el siglo XX el hombre se ha convertido en el principal agente de transformación de la biosfera multiplicando por diez la extracción de materiales. El creciente consumo de recursos no renovables y la presión sobre los renovables ha hecho que el debate sobre los límites del crecimiento haya sido uno de los más importantes en materia de sustentabilidad desde los años 70. En los últimos años se han publicado nuevas series estadísticas sobre extracción y consumo de recursos que, por primera vez, nos permiten tener una idea aproximada de la evolución del uso de los recursos en todo el planeta y con una perspectiva de largo plazo. El objetivo de este trabajo es el de ofrecer una síntesis histórica de los principales resultados revisando el debate de los límites del crecimiento en perspectiva histórica

Fertilization strategies for abating N pollution at the scale of a highly vulnerable and diverse semi-arid agricultural region (Murcia, Spain)

Overuse of N fertilizers in crops has induced the disruption of the N cycle, triggering the release of reactive N (Nr) to the environment. Several EU policies have been developed to address this challenge, establishing targets to reduce agricultural Nr losses. Their achievement could be materialized through the introduction of fertilizing innovations such as incorporating fertilizer into soils, using urease inhibitors, or by adjusting N inputs to crop needs that could impact in both yields and environment. The Murcia region (southeastern Spain) was selected as a paradigmatic case study, since overfertilization has induced severe environmental problems in the region in the last decade, to assess the impact of a set of 8 N fertilizing alternatives on crop yields and environmental Nr losses. Some of these practices imply the reduction of N entering in crops. We followed an integrated approach analyzing the evolution of the region in the long-term (1860–2018) and considering nested spatial- (from grid to region) and systems scales (from crops to the full agro-food system). We hypothesized that, even despite reduction of N inputs, suitable solutions for the abatement of Nr can be identified without compromising crop yields. The most effective option to reduce Nr losses was removing synthetic N fertilizers, leading to 75% reductions in N surpluses mainly due to a reduction of 64% of N inputs, but with associated yield penalties (31%–35%). The most feasible alternative was the removal of urea, resulting in 19% reductions of N inputs, 15%–21% declines in N surplus, and negligible yield losses. While these measures are applied at the field scale, their potential to produce a valuable change can only be assessed at regional scale. Because of this, a spatial analysis was performed showing that largest Nr losses occurred in irrigated horticultural crops. The policy implications of the results are discussed

The open veins of Latin America: Long-term physical trade flows (1900–2016)

Latin America has long played a key role in the global provision of natural resources. Most of the continent’s economies are net exporters of low-value, primary products and importers of manufactured goods at a high price. This pattern of specialised trade has highly negative consequences for economic development, the environment, and the local population’s wellbeing. Yet to date, little empirical evidence has been collected on Latin America’s total contribution to the rest of the world’s regions in historical perspective. Applying the Material Flow Accounting methodology, this paper estimates the physical and monetary trade of 16 Latin American economies between 1900 and 2016. Our results show that: (i) yearly net exports of materials went from 4 Mt to 610 Mt between 1900 and 2016, and greatly accelerated since the World War II. (ii) Latin America is a net exporter of most types of materials (fossil fuels, non-energy minerals and biomass), so it harbours socio-environmental problems associated with different types of extractivism. (iii) Different regional export patterns exist: Andeans export subsoil (mining and energy carriers) while the rest export soil (land-based products). The countries with the lowest net exports are the smallest in size and with the highest population density. (iv) Europe and the USA have historically received most of the imports, but since the end of the twentieth century, the Southeast Asia region is the biggest importer of materials from Latin America. (v) The price received for exported material is much lower than the price paid for imported material; and (vi) various historical periods can be differentiated regarding the relationship between economic growth and physical trade balance.CBUA/Universidad de Granad

Historical changes in biomass carbon stocks in the Mediterranean (Spain, 1860–2010)

Land-use change was the main source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions until the mid-twentieth century, especially due to deforestation processes. In recent decades, however, CO2 sequestration is being induced in some countries where forest area is experiencing net increases. Despite the key role of these processes, we hardly dispose of any empirical evidence of historical changes in biomass stocks, especially in the long-term (over 50 years) and in cultivated areas. In this study, we quantify the evolution of the surface area, carbon stocks (C) and C density of living biomass in Spain (50 provinces) between 1860 and 2010. According to our results, the C stock fell from 340.3 Tg C to 254.2 Tg C between 1860 and 1950, to then reach 844.0 Tg C in 2010. Although the stock began to increase much later than in other European countries, annual growth rates were much more significant. A decomposition analysis allowed us to observe that the increase in stock was mainly due to the change in C density (61.2% of the effect), surface area (35.3%) and, to a lesser extent, to the effect of location in more productive areas (5.7%). Woody crops – which were historically managed as agroforestry systems when combined with other crops – stored 15.8% of total stocks during the period studied. They play a particularly important role in areas with a Mediterranean climate because in these provinces, crops such as olive groves, vineyards or oranges have proliferated. The reasons for C stock increases are: the substitution of firewood with fossil fuels; agricultural intensification; and the outsourcing of land use to other countries through agricultural imports