Monitoring Welfare in Captive Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) Using Individual Positional Behavior and Substrate Use Profiles

The welfare of captive chimpanzees partly depends on the structural features present in their enclosure. An individual’s manner of expressing positional behaviors depends on these environmental characteristics and may be reflective of their physical and mental health. This thesis seeks to further the scientific understanding of the relationships between positional behavior, substrate use and captive chimpanzee welfare. In pursuit of this goal, I designed and installed a novel vertical climbing aid onto a climbable platform structure within an enclosure at the chimpanzee sanctuary, Chimp Haven, in an effort to encourage mobility and vertical space use in the enclosure’s residents. Additionally, I assessed the chimpanzees’ tendencies for engaging in positional behaviors and using present substrates and enclosure areas. Finally, I examined the associations between particular substrates and the expressions of positional behaviors. The vertical climbing aid\u27s effectiveness was assessed by reviewing video recordings of the two platform structures within the enclosure before and after the installation. Positional behavior and substrate use data were recorded for each subject via focal animal scan sampling. The novel climbing aid was not effective during the study’s duration. Occupation rates and elevation level change frequencies decreased on the experimental structure. Alternative approaches should be taken to future structural modification designs, implementations, and assessments. Individuals demonstrated unique profiles of positional behaviors and substrate use tendencies. The detailed positional behavior profiles and diversity could be useful in assessing and promoting physical health and welfare once validated with established welfare measures and medical records. Substrate use profiles and diversity metrics could similarly be used to determine the degree to which individuals avoid or are receptive to various stimuli. Hence, changes to substrate use profiles can be monitored to assess progress in efforts to encourage individuals to embrace diverse experiences as is the goal of provisioning enrichment. Finally, the associations between substrate use and positional behavior expression may be used to direct changes to enclosures based on the needs of its residents. Deficiencies in positional behaviors for a given chimpanzee may be addressed through the addition of substrates that are most associated with a desired positional behavior. This preliminary study outlines a new approach to measuring welfare as a function of positional behavior expression and environmental interactions. Future refinements to these methods are expected to contribute to the ability of captive management programs to infer a more complete understanding of the overall conditions of captive chimpanzees. Issues that impede a chimpanzee’s wellbeing may then be addressed with suitable captive management strategies and the informed installation of appropriate substrates to improve welfare

Did NAFTA Help Mexico? An Update After 23 Years

This paper compares the performance of the Mexican economy with that of the rest of the region and with its own economic performance, over the 23 years since NAFTA took effect, based on the available economic and social indicators. Among the results, it finds that Mexico ranks 15th out of 20 Latin American countries in growth of real GDP per person, the most basic economic measure of living standards; Mexico's poverty rate in 2014 was higher than the poverty rate of 1994; and real (inflation-adjusted) wages were almost the same in 2014 as in 1994. It also notes that if NAFTA had been successful in restoring Mexico's pre-1980 growth rate -- when developmentalist economic policies were the norm -- Mexico today would be a high-income country, with income per person comparable to Western European countries. If not for Mexico's long-term economic failure, including the 23 years since NAFTA, it is unlikely that immigration from Mexico would have become a major political issue in the United States, since relatively few Mexicans would seek to cross the border. This report updates a version released in February 2014

Measurement of Functional Residual Capacity of the Lung by Nitrogen Washout/Wash-in in Mechanically Ventilated ICU Patients

Background: We evaluated the functionality, feasibility of use at the bedside and repeatability of subsequent Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) measurements in mechanically ventilated ICU patients using a new system. The newly developed system had previously been assessed for accuracy in spontaneously breathing human volunteers. Materials and Methods: We measured the FRC of the lungs of 20 mechanically ventilated ICU patients using the nitrogen washout/wash-in technique. Duplicate measures in each of the patients were analyzed for repeatability. Results: The squared correlation coefficient for the linear regression between repeated measurements was r2=0.92 (n=39); y=0.99x +0.03. the bias +/- Standard Deviation was -0.009 +/- 0.212 L (-0.4 +/- 8.9%). The Limits of agreement (mean +/- 2*SD) were between -0.42 and 0.41 L (-17.9 to 17.1%). Conclusion: These results indicate FRC measurement is repeatable within a clinically acceptable range. This method compares favorably with other methods recently reported in the literature. This system could possibly be used in space to monitor lung volume, especially as it relates to pulmonary disease in weightlessness

Measurement of Functional Residual Capacity of the Lung by Nitrogen Washout, Carbon Dioxide Rebreathing and Body Plethysmography in Healthy Volunteers

Background: We measured Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) of the lungs with three methods in healthy volunteers. The three techniques included a CO2 partial rebreathing technique, nitrogen washout technique, and the reference technique for ambulatory patients, body plethysmography. Materials and Methods: After granting consent to an IRB-approved protocol, each of the 20 healthy volunteers participated in FRC measurement by three methods, including body plethysmography, carbon dioxide (CO2) rebreathing, and nitrogen washout. Gas concentration and volume data were collected from the distal side of a mouthpiece during spontaneous ventilation for the washout and rebreathing measurements. The FRC was measured twice with a nitrogen washout measurement technique and then signals from five partial CO2 rebreathing measurement cycles were collected. Finally, the nitrogen washout FRC measurements were repeated twice. We compared the average CO2 rebreathing FRC measurements and the average nitrogen washout FRC measurements to the body plethysmography FRC measurements for each subject through statistical methods of linear regression analysis and Bland-Altman Analysis. Results: The squared correlation coefficient for the linear regression between nitrogen washout and body plethysmography measurements was r2 = 0.91 (n = 35). The bias +/- Standard Deviation was 0.054 +/- 0.373 L Conclusion: These results indicate FRC measurement by nitrogen washout correlate well with the body plethysmography reference standard in ambulatory, spontaneously breathing subjects. This method could possibly be used in space to monitor lung function

Evaluation of a CO2 Partial Rebreathing-Based Functional Residual Capacity Measurement Method for Mechanically Ventilated Patients

There is a need for an automated bedside functional residual capacity (FRC) measurement method that can continually monitor both the size and a change in size of a patient’s lung volume during mechanical ventilation without the use of bulky equipment, expensive tracer gases or step increases in inspired oxygen fraction. We developed a CO2 rebreathing method for FRC measurement that simply requires data from a volumetric capnometer (partial pressure of end-tidal carbon dioxide (PetCO2) and volume of CO2 eliminated (VCO2) for the measurement. This study was designed to assess the accuracy, precision and repeatability of the proposed FRC measurement system during stable ventilation. Methods: Accuracy and precision of measurements were assessed by comparing the CO2 rebreathing FRC values to the gold standard, body plethysmography, in nine spontaneously breathing volunteers. Repeatability was assessed by comparing subsequent measurements in nine intensive care patients whose lungs were under mechanical ventilation. The accuracy and precision of the CO2 FRC measurement during mechanical ventilation were then compared to the reference method, modified multiple breath nitrogen washout, in the same ICU patients. Results: Compared to body plethysmography, the accuracy (mean bias) of the CO2 method was -0.085 L and precision (1 standard deviation) was 0.033 L (-2.3 ± 9.2% of body plethysmography). The accuracy in the mechanically ventilated patients was -0.055 L and precision was 0.336 L (-2.6% ± 17.5% of nitrogen washout). The difference between repeated FRC measurements in the ICU patients was 0.020 ± 0.42 L (mean ± standard deviation) (1.1 ± 23.4 %). Conclusions: The CO2 rebreathing method for FRC measurement provides acceptable accuracy and repeatability compared to existing methods during ventilation with mechanical ventilation. Further study of the CO2 rebreathing method is needed

Bringing neglected tropical diseases into the spotlight.

The correlation between poverty and the neglected tropical disease (NTD) burden is undeniable. NTDs are a brand without copyright; an international movement gathering momentum towards a common goal of tackling major causes of preventable illness in low-income countries. New reports by Liese and Schubert and Moran et. al. act as a call to arms, highlighting a need for research into NTD treatment and control that is essential to improving the lives of the 'bottom billion.

Anatomic Dead Space Cannot Be Predicted by Body Weight

Anatomic, airway, or tracheal, dead space is the part of the tidal volume that does not participate in gas exchange. Knowledge of the size of the dead space is important for proper mechanical ventilation, especially if small tidal volumes are used. Respiratory and medical textbooks state that anatomic dead space can be estimated from the patient’s body weight. Specifically, these references suggest dead space can be predicted using a relationship of one milliliter per pound of body weight. Using a volumetric capnography monitor that incorporates on-airway flow and CO2 monitoring (NICO2, Respironics, Wallingford CT), anatomic dead space can be automatically and directly measured using Fowler’s method in which dead space equals the exhaled volume up to the point when CO2 rises above a threshold [4]. We retrospectively analyzed data collected in 58 (43 male, 15 female) patients to assess the accuracy of weight-based estimation of anatomic dead space. It appears that the average anatomic dead space roughly corresponds to the average body weight for the overall population; however, the poor correlation between individual patient weight and dead space contradicts the suggestion that dead space can be estimated from body weight

Negotiating Legacies: Opposing, Interrupting, Re-creating—Taiwan’s ongoing Experience

This special issue concerns agency and negotiation in the context of the hierarchical relations between the People’s Republic of China (PRC), a global superpower, and Taiwan, a subordinated actor often relegated to a marginal position in contemporary global geopolitics. By exploring how Taiwan opposes, interrupts and re-creates its subordinate position vis-à-vis China, the authors of this special issue will shed light on the complexities of the ongoing Taiwan experience, shaped by different, often opposing, interests, positions and perspectives regarding its relationship with China. Yet, by exploring the experience of Taiwan with reference to its Chinese legacies, this special issue will also allow important reflections on China, not only in its hegemonic role regionally and globally, but also in its weaknesses when it deals with subordinated actors. This is a timely and important piece, which will allow alternative interpretations of contemporary events not only in Taiwan, for instance the recent national elections and related political developments, but also in the region, such as the protests which have been occurring in Hong Kong during the last four months

Measurement of Functional Residual Capacity of the Lung Before and During Acute Lung Injury

Background: We measured Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) of the lungs with a CO2 partial rebreathing technique, first in a mechanical lung analog, and then in mechanically ventilated animals before, during, and subsequent to an acute lung injury induced by oleic acid. We compared the FRC from partial CO2 rebreathing with those of a nitrogen washout reference method. Materials and Methods: Using an approved animal protocol, general anesthesia was induced and maintained with propofol in six swine (38.8-50.8 kg). In both the mechanical lung analog and the animals, a partial CO2 rebreathing monitor (NICO2, Respironics Inc., Wallingford, CT) was placed in the breathing circuit between the endotracheal tube and the Y-piece. The partial CO2 rebreathing signal obtained from this monitor was used to calculate FRC. FRC was also measured with a nitrogen washout measurement technique. In the animals, we collected data from healthy lungs and then subsequent to a lung injury that simulated the conditions of ARDS/ALI which was created by intravenously infusing 0.09 mL/kg of oleic acid over a 15-minute period. At each stage of the experiment, the positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) was set to 0, 5, 10, and 15 mmHg H2O. At each PEEP level, we compared the average of three FRC measurements from CO2 rebreathing to the average of three nitrogen washout reference measurements. Results: The correlation coefficient for the linear regression between CO2 rebreathing and nitrogen washout measurements in the animals was r2= 0.89 (n = 50). The average error of the CO2 washout system was -87 mL with limits of agreement (LOA) ± 263 mL. In the mechanical lung, the average error in the FRC measured by the CO2 wash-in system was 37 mL with LOA ± 103 mL, which was equivalent to 1.7% of the true FRC. The correlation coefficient was r2= 0.96. Conclusion: These results indicate FRC measurement by CO2 rebreathing can reliably detect a decrease in FRC during lung injury and can reflect the response of the FRC to treatment with PEEP

Measurement of the Respiratory Functional Residual Capacity on an Artificial Lung System

Decreases in functional residual capacity (FRC), the residual respiratory volume following an expiration, are associated with the application of anesthesia and supine body positioning, both common in the ICU. We are developing two non-invasive methods of measuring the FRC on patients under mechanical ventilation. FRC increases are typically accomplished by increasing the Positive End Expiratory Pressure (PEEP) until the arterial O2 content is saturated; however, increased PEEP may also cause a decrease in cardiac output due to the increased thoracic cavity pressure, resulting in a net decreased O2 delivery. Measurement of the FRC will be useful in optimizing the application of PEEP to maximize O2 delivery. FRC determination as a function of PEEP was made on a test lung using a partial CO2 rebreathing method and an N2 washout method in order to compare their accuracy. The CO2 rebreathing method uses Fick’s principle along with a perturbation of gas concentrations initiated by partial rebreathing. The N2 washout method also utilizes Fick’s principle, but creates the perturbation through an increase in inspired O2 concentration. Preliminary FRC measurements were made using the NICO2 system which includes a pneumotachograph for volumetric measurements and a CAPNOSTATTM sensor for CO2 concentration measurement. Although both methods correlated to measured FRC volumes in the test lung, the N2 washout method resulted in greater precision and less variability, most likely due to the greater magnitude of perturbation that is made and the use of data from multiple breaths. Both methods will require further bench testing to verify their accuracy within typical ranges of mechanical ventilation variables, followed by en vivo studies in order to characterize any inherent physiologic implications and to determine repeatability